X/ 





ei 



HISTORY 

lOF MAN 

BY 

DE aUATREFAGEvS 

gj 



\ 




^• 



■^ 



I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.! 






a. 



I UNITED STATES OF AJIEBJCA 




The Englishmak. 

White Eace, European Branch.— The head has a beautiful oval form, the nose is hrge and 
8trai(?ht, the aperture of the mouth moderate in size, inclosed by delicate lips: the 
teeth are nrraneed vertically ; the eyes are larjre, wide open, and surmounted by curved 
brows. The forehead is advanced, and the face well proportioned ; the hair is glossy, 
long', and abundant. 



THE 



NATURAL HISTORY OP IAN: 



A COUESE OF ELEMENTAEY LEOTUKES. 



BY 



A. BE QUATEEFAGES, 

MEMBER OP THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; PROFESSOR IN THE MTTSETJM OF 
NATURAL HISTORY. 



TUANSLATED FROM THE F BEN OH, 
By ELIZA A. YOUMANS. 



WITH AN APPENDIX. 




I^EW YORK: 
B. APPLETON AFD C M P A N^ Y, 

549 AND 551 BEOADWAY. 

1875. 



GH2 +■ 



J-r /- 



Enteeeu, according to Act of Congress, in the year 18T5, by 

D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



TRAIS^SLATOE'S PEEFACE. 



The study of the races of mankind in recent times, by the 
method of Natural History, has given rise to an important branch 
of knowledge known as the science of Anthropology. Societies 
have been established in various countries for its promotion, and 
many learned works have been written upon it in different lan- 
guages. The subject has, moreover, now become one of such 
great public interest, tliat it is important it should be presented 
in its rudiments for the benefit of beginners. In this country, 
especially, where all the great races of the world — European, 
African, Asiatic, and American — are thrown together on an im- 
mense scale, and practical problems of great diflSculty arise from 
the interaction of diverse foreign populations, it is desirable that 
broad scientific views of the subject should be widely dissemi- 
nated. 

The author of this little volume of lectures. Prof, de Qua- 
trefages, of Paris, is one of the eminent founders of Anthropo- 
logical Science, and he has also shown himself to be a most suc- 
cessful popular teacher of the subject. In the clearness and sim- 
plicity of his statements, the felicity and fullness of his illustra- 
tions, the colloquial ^4vacity of his style, and the skill with which 
he brings large questions within the range of ordinary apprehen- 
sion, he certainly has but few equals. His elementary lectures on 
the "Katural History of Man," delivered to audiences of work- 



4 TRANSLATOK'S PREFACE. 

ing-people in Vincennes, were extensively circulated upon the 
Continent in different languages ; and the translations of several 
of them, printed in The Popular Science MontTihj^ have been re- 
ceived v/ith such favor as to induce their republication in this 
collected form. 

Upon certain fundamental questions in Natural History, such 
as the nature of species, and the origin of man, wide differences 
of opinion have latterly grown up among naturalists, and are 
contested with great earnestness by the respective parties. The 
theory of development, which teaches that the higher forms of 
life are derived from the lower, is now maintained by many emi- 
nent scientific men in Germany, England, and this country; but 
Prof, de Quatrefages holds to the old views which still prevail in 
France, and he enforces them with his usual ability in the follow- 
ing pages. That this little book may fairly represent the present 
state of opinion upon the subject, it has been thought best to give 
briefly the arguments oa^ the other side in an Appendix. The ob- 
jections to Prof de Quatrefages's positions, there stated, have 
been kindly furnished by one of our leading biologists. Prof. 
Theodore Gill, of the Smithsonian Institution; and the notes of 
the Appendix, when not otherwise accredited, are on his au- 
thority. 

It is proper to remark, however, that these differences of 
opinion are of minor importance in relation to the objects of 
this book. Ifc has been translated, because it is the most admi- 
rable popular introduction to the study of the races of mankind 
that has yet appeared ; and, in the work of translation, the 
author's style of exposition has been followed as literally as 
possible. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface 3 



LECTUKE I. 
The Unity op the Human Species ...... •? 

LECTURE II. 
The Antiquity of Man , ... .34 

LECTURE III. 
The Origin of Man 64 

^LECTURE IV. 
Physical Characters of the Human Race 89 

LECTURE Y. 
Intellectual and Moral Characters of the Human Race . .110 



APPENDIX 139 



THE ]SrATUEAL HISTOET OF MAI^. 



LECTURE I. 

THE FNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 

Gentlemen: Each of my fellow-laborers in science 
comes here to lecture to you, and selects the subject which 
habitually occupies him. Some tell you of the heavens, 
the earth, the waters ; from others you get the history of 
vegetables and animals. As I am Professor of the Natural 
History of Man at the Museum, I ask myself why I should 
not speak to you of man. 

There is evidently as much interest for us in the his- 
tory of our own species as in that of animals, even of those 
most useful to us. Indeed, at the present time, the mind 
is drawn toward this study by an irresistible movement. 
Formerly, Anthropology, the natural history of man, was 
not represented in philosophical bodies, nor by the periodi- 
cal press. Now, in Paris alone there are two Philosophical 
Societies occupied exclusively with this science, and two 
large publications equally devoted to it. At the Museum 
the teaching of anthropology is older. It is there aided by 
a collection which is still the best in the world. 

I do not hesitate to say that it is one of the glories of 
France to have given by these methods an example to the 



8 THE NATUKAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

entire world — an example followed to-day in America as 
well as in Europe. And I w^ish to make you take a part 
in this movement, by giving you some serious notion of the 
ensemble of the human family. 

My task, gentlemen, is more difficult than is that of 
my associates. In all these lectures we are to speak of 
only a single being, man. Consequently, there will be an 
intimate union between them, so much so that any person 
who should miss a lecture would find difficulty in thoroughly 
understanding those that follow. To remove this difficulty, 
I mean to shape my teaching so that each lecture will form 
as definite a whole as possible. Then, at the commence- 
ment of each lecture, I shall endeavor to give, in a few 
words, a resume of the preceding. In this way I hope to 
carry you to the end without ceasing to be understood. 

Each lecture, then, will be a sort of chapter of what we 
might call Popular Anthropology. 

By-and-by I hope that these lectures will be collected 
into a volume, and I shall be very proud if one day they 
merit the adjective I have employed — if, in reality, they 
become popular among you. 

Let us enter, then, upon our first chapter. Since man 
is the subject of our discourse, we must first ask what he 
is. But, before answering, I ought to enter into some ex- 
planation. 

This question has been often asked, but generally by 
theologians or by philosophers. Theologians have an- 
swered in the name of dogma and religion ; philosophers in 
the name of metaphysics and abstraction. Let it be well 
understood between us that I shall take neither of these 
grounds, but shall avoid, with great care, both that of 
theology and that of philosophy. Before I became pro- 
fessor at the Museum, I was occupied wdth the study of 
animals — I was a naturalist. It is as a naturalist that I 
have taken my chair at the Institute. At the Museum I 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 9 

remained what I was, and nothing else. I shall continue 
the same at Vincennes, leaving to theologians theology, to 
philosophers philosophy, limiting myself to science, and 
especially to natural science. 

Let us now return to the question I was about to put : 
What is man ? 

It is evidently useless to insist that man is neither a 
mineral nor a vegetable — that he is neither a stone nor a 
plan t. But is he an animal ? No, indeed, especially when 
we take into account all which exists in him. And I am 
sure that in this respect 3^ou all agree with me. 

Certainly none of you would wish to be compared with 
cattle that ruminate, with hogs that wallow in the mire. 
Nor would you wish to be classed with the dog, notwith- 
standing all the qualities which make him the friend and 
companion of man ; nor with the horse, though it should 
be with Gladiator.* 

Man is not an animal. He is widely distinguished from 
animals by numerous and important characters. I shall 
here only refer to his intellectual superiority^ to which be- 
longs articulate speech, so that each people has its special 
language ; writing^ which permits the reproduction of this 
language ; the fine arts^ by the aid of which he conveys, 
and, in some sort, materializes the conceptions of his imagi- 
nation. But he is distinguished from all animals by two 
fundamental characters which pertain only to him. Man is 
the only one among organized and living beings who has 
the ahstract sentiment of good and evil ^ in him alone, 
consequently, exists moral sense. 

He is also alone in the belief that there will be some- 
thing after this life, and in the recognition of a Supreme 
Being, who can influence his life for good or for evil. It 
is upon this double idea that the great fact of religion rests. 

By-and-by these two questions of morals and religion 
* See Appendix A. 



10 THE NATURAL HISTORY . OF MAN. 

will turn up again. We shall, I repeat, examine them, 
not as theologians^ but simply as naturalists. I will only 
say for the present that man, everywhere, however savage 
he may be, shows some signs of morality and of religion 
that we never find among animals. 

Hence man is a being apart, separated from animals by 
two great characters, which, I repeat, distinguish him yet 
more than his incontestable intellectual superiority. 

But here the differences end. So far as the body is 
concerned, man is an animal, nothing more, nothing less. 
Except some differences of form and arrangement, he is the 
equal, only the equal, of the superior animals that surround 
him. 

If we take, for terms of comparison, the species that 
approach us nearest in general form, anatomy shows us 
that our organs are exactly the same as theirs. We can 
trace in them, almost muscle by muscle and nerve by nerve, 
those which we find in man himself. 

Physiology ^ in its turn, shows us, in the body of man, 
the organs, muscles, nerves, performing exactly the same 
functions as in the animal. This is a capital fact which 
daily profits us, both from a purely scientific and from a 
practical point of view. We cannot experiment upon 
man — we can upon animals. Human physiology has em- 
ployed this means to discover the functions of our organs. 
Physicians go further still ; they bring to the sick-bed the 
fruit of experiments made upon animals. Anthropology 
also, as we have just seen, applies to these inferior creatures 
for very important instruction. 

But Anthropology should descend much lower than the 
animals when it would enlighten us completely. Vegeta- 
bles are not animals, any more than animals are man. But 
men, animals, and vegetables, are all organized and living 
beings. They are distinguished from minerals, which are 



Fia. 1. 




The Esqtjimatjx. 



Yellow Eace, Hyperborean Branch. -The families belonging to the yellow race have hi^h 
cheek-bones a lozenge-shaped head, a small, flat nosef a flat cSInance • ^ 



oguely.,et eye, ; straight, coarse btocl S? a se^^^^e^rrand "^SS.ed 



narrow, 
com- 



12 THE NATUKAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

neither the one nor the other, by certain general facts 
common to all. 

All organized beings have a limited duration ; all are 
born small and feeble; during part of their existence, all 
grow and strengthen, then decrease in energy and vitality 
sometimes also in size ; finally all die. Throughout life, 
all organized and living beings need nourishment. Before 
death, all reproduce their kind by a seed or an egg (we 
speak here of species, not of individuals), and this is true 
even of those which seem to come directly from a bud, from 
a layer, from a graft, etc. ; for from bud to bud, from layer 
to layer, from graft to graft, we can rise to the seed and to 
the egg. Finally, then, all organized and living beings 
have had a father and a mother. 

These grand phenomena, common to all living beings, 
and consequently to man, imply general laws which control 
them, and which must therefore govern man as well as the 
plant. 

Science every day confirms this conclusion, which might 
have been reached by reason alone, but which may now be 
regarded as a fact of experience. And I believe I need not 
dwell here, to make you understand the magnificence of 
this result. 

As for me, I find it admirable that man and the lowest 
insect, that the king of the earth and the lowliest of the 
mosses, are so linked together that the entire living world 
forms but one whole, all the parts of which harmonize in 
the closest mutual dependence. 

From this community in certain phenomena, from this 
subjection to certain laws equally common, results a con- 
sequence of the highest importance. Whatever questions 
concerning man you may have to examine, if they touch 
upon an}' of these properties, of these phenomena common 
to all organized and living beings, you must interrogate 
not only animals, but vegetables also, if you would reach 
the truth. 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 13 

When one of these questions is put and answered, to 
make the answer good, to make it true, you must bring 
man under all the general laws which rule other organized 
and living beings. 

If the solution tends to make man an exception to 
general laws, you may affirm that it is bad and false. 

But also, when you have resolved the question so as to 
include man in these great general laws, you may be cer- 
tain that the solution is good, that it is true, and really 
scientific. 

With these data, and these alone, we will now consider 
the second question of Anthropology, and here it is : 

Are there several species of men, or is there but one, 
including several races ? 

To be understood, this question requires some explana- 
tion. 

Look at the drawings I have hung at the bottom of the 
hall. These figures are part of those I employ in the 
course at the Jardin des Plantes.* 

I have brought but a small number, but they suffice to 
give an idea of the principal varieties which the human 
type presents. You have here individuals taken from 
nearly every part of the world ; and this I regard as a very 
important point. You see that they differ considerably 
from each other in color, often also in hair, sometimes in 
proportions, sometimes in features. 

Well, our question is, whether the differences presented 
by the human groups from which these designs were taken 
are differences of species^ or if they indicate onl}^ differences 
among races that belong to one and the same species. 

To answer this question, we must begin by getting a 
clear idea of what is meant by the words S2^ecies and race. 
In fact, the whole discussion turns on these two words. 

* Represented by illustrations of different races in this lecture and 
throughout the volume. 



Fig. 




New-Caledontan. 

^'""'coSrfresS^l'nlP^ ^^^'^ '''.'' '' ^^^^^^igm.hed by its short, vvoolly hair, 

oHark-brown skin '"'"'' P^''™*"^"* '^^«' ^^liclc lips, bowed legs, and black 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 15 

Unhappily, they have been often taken one for the 
other, or else they have been badly defined. The dis- 
cussions which have hence arisen would very quickly cease, 
if the subject w^ere studied a little more clogelj^ 

Let us see if we cannot get precise ideas without going 
into details impossible here. 

Certainly none of you would ever confound an ass with 
a horse ; not even when a horse is small, and there are 
horses no larger than a Newfoundland dog; nor when an 
ass attains the size of an ordinary horse, as, for example, 
our large asses of Poitou. You say immediately, they are 
difi'erent species ; here is a big ass and a little horse. And 
you say the same on seeing, side by side, a dog and a wolf.* 

On the other hand, all of you here would give the single 
name of dog to animals which differ from each other, as do 
the bull-dog and water-spaniel, the greyhound and the lap- 
dog, the Newfoundland dog and the King-Oharles ; and 
you are right. 

However, judging by sight alone, even after detailed 
observation, you see, between the dogs I have just named, 
dijfferences of size, of proportion, of color, much greater than 
those which separate the horse from the ass. An ass and 
a horse of the same size certainly resemble each other much 
more than the types of dog I have just named. 

Further, if you place side by side a black and a white 
water-spaniel, you will not designate them by different 
names. You will call them both water-spaniels, although 
one is black and the other white. 

In the case of vegetables you do exactly the same thing. 
A red rose and a white rose are equally roses ; a pear is 
always a pear, whether you buy two for a sous in the 
street, or pay three francs at Che vet. 

Well, without doubt, your decision is exactly like that 
of the naturalists. You have answered, just as they do, 
* See Appendix B. 



16 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

the question of species and race — a question that at jBrst 
appears very complicated, because of the confusion before 
referred to. Here, then, is one more example to prove 
that, under many circumstances, popular observation and 
good sense go straight to the mark, as well as the labors of 
science. 

Indeed, let us translate into general scientific language 
what I have just said of your views, and I am very sure not 
to be mistaken with regard to them. 

The meaning of this judgment is, that an animal or a 
vegetable may vary v/ithin certain limits. The dog re- 
mains a dog, whatever its general form, its size, its hair ; 
the pear remains a pear, whatever its size, its savor, the 
color of its skin. 

From these facts, which I simply allude to, it results 
that these variations may be transmitted by way of genera- 
tion. You all know that the union of two water-spaniels 
will produce water-spaniels ; that the union of two bull- 
dogs gives bull-dogs. 

It results, finally, in a more general way, that individuals 
of the same species may cease to resemble each other in an 
absolute manner, may sometimes even take very different 
characters, without becoming isolated and forming different 
species. As we have just said, the dog remains a dog, 
whatever its modifications. 

Well, these groups, formed by individuals which have 
departed from the primitive tj^pe, and have formed distinct 
secondary groups, are precisely the ones that naturalists 
call races. 

You understand why we constantly speak of races of 
cattle, horses, etc. There is, in fact, but one species of 
domestic cattle, which has given birth to the race hretonne, 
as well as to the great cattle of Uri with their savage 
aspect, and to the peaceful Durham. We have, again, but 
one species of domestic horse, and this species has given 



Fig. S. 




A NoTJER Chief. 
Brown Eace, Ethiopian Branch.— The brown race is composed of a great variety of 
peoples, with nothing in common but a complexion darker than that of the white 
and yellow races. It is supposed to be a mixture of the white, yellow, and black 
races. 



18 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

birth to the little Shetland pony, of which I spoke just 
now, and to those enormous brewers' horses that we see 
in the streets of London. Finally, the various races of 
sheep, goats, etc., have arisen from one and the same 
species. 

We must give more precision to our ideas on this point, 
because the least vagueness here will make very serious 
inconvenience. I will cite some further examples taken 
from vegetables and animals, being careful to choose such 
as are entirely familiar. 

You all know the seed of the coffee-tree. Permit me to 
give its history. You will see that it is instructive. 

The coffee-tree came originally from Africa, where from 
time immemorial it has been cultivated on the declivities 
of Abyssinia that slope toward the Red Sea. About the 
fifteenth century, something like four hundred years ago, 
the coffee-tree crossed this sea and penetrated into Arabia, 
where it has since been cultivated, and whence especially 
we get the famous Mocha coffee. 

The use of coffee spread very early and with great 
rapidity in the East. It penetrated Europe much more 
slowly, and it was first made use of in France at Marseilles. 

Coffee was first drunk in Paris in 1667. The seeds 
which furnished it were brought in small quantity by a 
French traveller named Thevenot. Two years afterward, 
in 1669, Soliman Aga, ambassador of the Sublime Porte in 
the time of Louis XIV., induced the courtiers of that great 
king to taste it, and they found it very agreeable. How- 
ever, its use did not spread for a long time. It was not 
until the eighteenth century that it began to be generally 
adopted. 

You see that coffee has not been very long in circula- 
tion. In fact, it is scarcely a century and a half since it 
became an article of general consumption by the people of 
Europe. 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 19 

Well, during many years Europe remained tributary to 
Arabia for this commodity. . All the coffee consumed in 
Europe came from Arabia, and particularly from Mocha. 
Toward the commencement of the eighteenth century the 
Dutch attempted to import it into Batavia, one of their 
colonies in the Indian Archipelago. They succeeded very 
well. From Eatavia some stalks were taken to Holland 
and put in a hot-house, where they succeeded equally well. 
One of these stalks was brought to France toward 1710, 
and was placed in the conservatory of the Jardin des 
Flantes, and there also it prospered and gave birth to a 
certain number of sprouts. 

In 1720 or 1725 (I have not been able to find the precise 
date), an officer of the French Navy, Captain Desclieux, 
thought that, since Holland had cultivated coffee at Batavia, 
he might also acclimate it in our colonies of the Gulf of 
Mexico. When embarking for Martinique, he took from 
the Jardin des Plantes three stalks of coffee, and carried 
them with him. The voyage was long and difficult, by 
reason of contrary winds. The supply of water proving 
insufficient, it was necessary to put the crew on rations. 
Captain Desclieux, like the others, had but a small quantity 
of water to drink each day. He divided it with his coffee- 
plants. Notwithstanding all his care, two died on the 
passage ; only one arrived safe and sound at Martinique. 
Put at once into the earth, it prospered so much and so 
well that from it have descended all the coffee-trees now 
spread over the Antilles and tropical America. Twenty 
years after, our Western colonies exported millions of 
pounds of coffee. 

You see the coffee-tree, starting from Africa, has reached 
the extremity of Asia on the east and America on the west. 
Hence, it has nearly traveled round the world. Now, in 
this long voyage, coffee has become modified. 

Passing by the tree, of which we know little, let us con- 



20 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

sider the seed. We need not be grocers to know the 
different qualities of coffees and their different production. 
Nobody would confound Mocha with Bourbon, Rio Janeiro 
with Martinique. Each of these seeds carries in its form, 
in its proportions, in its aroma, the certificate, so to say, of 
its birth. 

Whence came these changes ? We cannot know with 
certainty, and explain the why and the how, and follow 
rigorously the filiation of cause and effect; but, consider- 
ing the phenomena as a whole, it becomes evident that it 
is to differences of temperature, of climate, of culture, that 
all these modifications are due. 

This example, taken from vegetables, shows that if we 
transport to considerable distances different specimens of 
the same vegetable, placing them in different conditions of 
cultivation, we obtain different races. Tea transported 
some years ago into tropical America would present us 
with like facts. 

Take, now, an example from animals. You all know 
the turkey; but, perhaps, some of you do not know that it 
came from America. Its introduction into Europe is quite 
recent. 

In America the turkey is wild ; and there, in its natural 
conditions of existence, it presents many characters which 
distinguish it from our domesticated individuals. The 
wild-turkey is a very beautiful bird, of a deep-brown color, 
very iridescent, presenting reflections of blue, copper, and 
gold, which make it truly ornamental. It was because of 
its fine plumage that it was first introduced into France. 
In the beginning no one thought of the turkey as food ; 
and the first turke}'' served at table in France was in 1570, 
at the wedding of Charles IX., three hundred and four 
years ago. 

As soon as the turkey is tasted, it is found that he 
is too good to be merely looked at. He passes from the 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 21 

park to the poultry-yard, from the poultry-yard to the farm, 
and from one farm to another, east, west, north, and south. 
At present, in almost all France, turkeys are raised and are 
a considerable object of commerce. 

But, in going from farm to farm, in traveling all over 
our country, this bird has encountered different conditions 
of existence, differences of nourishment and temperature, 
and never the primitive conditions that it had naturally in 
America. As a consequence of all this, the turkey has also 
varied, and, to-day, not a turkey in France resenibles the 
wild stock. Generally, it has become much smaller ; when 
it has preserved its deep plumage it has become darker and 
duller ; but soixie have become fawli-colored, others are 
more or less white, and others again are spotted with white, 
gray, or fawn-color. 

In a word, almost all the localities to which the turkey 
has become addicted have given birth to new varieties 
which have been transformed into races. 

Now, in spite of these changes, and although they do 
not resemble their first parents in America, and do not 
resemble each other, are our French turkeys less the 
children of the wild-turkey of America ? Or, if you like 
it better, are they less brothers and sisters ? Have they 
ceased to be part of the same species ? Evidently not. 

What I have just said of the turkey might also be said 
of the rabbit. The wild-rabbit lives all around us — in our 
downs, in our woods — and he does not resemble, or resem- 
bles but little, our domestic rabbits. These, you know, 
are both great and small, with short hair, and with silky 
hair ; they are black and white, yellow and gray, spotted and 
of uniform color. In a word, this species comprehends a 
great number of different races, all constituting one and the 
same species with the wild stock which still lives around 
us. 

From these facts that could be multiplied, we have to 



22 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

draw an important consequence, to which I call your atten- 
tion : 

A pair of rabbits, left in a plain where they would en- 
counter no enemies, in a few years would fill it with their 
descendants, and, in a little while, all France would be 
easily peopled. We have just seen that a single stalk 
of cofi"ee gave birth to all the coffee-trees now found in 
America. 

The wild-turkeys and their domestic offspring, the wild- 
ral)bits and their captive descendants, may then be con- 
sidered by the naturalist as alike arising from a primitive 
pair. 

Gentlemen, this is the stamp of a species. Whenever 
you see a greater or less number of individuals, or groups 
of individuals, if, for one reason or another, you can look 
upon them as descendants of a single primitive pair, you 
may say you have before you a species ; if from group to 
group there are differences, you say these are the races of 
that species. 

Observe carefully, gentlemen, that, in thus expressing 
myself, I have not stated for certain the existence of this 
primitive pair of the stock of rabbits or of the stock of tur- 
keys. I affirm no such thing, because neither experiment 
nor observation — the two guides we should always follow 
in science — can aid us on this point. I only say to you, 
every thing is as if they had been derived from a single 
pair. 

You see, after all, the question of species and of 7'ace is 
not very difficult to comprehend, not even very difficult to 
settle when we know the wild type, when we have the his- 
toric data which enable us to connect with this type the 
more or less different groups which domestication has de- 
tached. But when we do not know the wild type, when 
the historic data are lost, the question, on the contrary^ 
becomes extremely difficult at the first step, because differ- 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 



23 



ences that we encounter from individual to individual, and, 
above all, from group to group, might be considered as 
specific differences. 

Happily, Phj'siology comes now to our relief. We en- 
counter here one of those great and beautiful general laws 
upon which the established order depends, and which we 



Fig. 4. 




Mexican Indian. 

Red Race, Northern Branch. — This division, is rather imperfect from an ethnological 
point of view. Its characters are a mixture of the yellow, white, and black races. 



admire more the more we stud}^ This is the law of cross- 
breeding — a law which governs animals as well as vege- 
tables, and is, of course, applicable to man himself. 

You know what is meant by the word crossing. We 

2 



24 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

mean by it all marriages occurring between animals that 
belong either to two different species, or to two different 
races. Well, the results of these marriages obey the fol- 
lowing laws, which are : 

When this union takes place between two animals be- 
longing to different species — that is, when we attempt 
hyhridization — in the immense majority of cases the mar- 
riage is sterile. Thus, for example, the experiment of 
uniting rabbits and hares has been tried thousands of times 
all over the world. This experiment is said to have suc- 
ceeded twice. But these two alleged facts are much more 
doubtful than the results of experiments recently made by 
a man of true talent, skilled in the art of experimenting, 
and who believes in the possibility of these unions, who has 
completely failed. Although he furnished the best condi- 
tions for success, he was not more fortunate in his results 
than Buffon, and the two Geoffroy Saint-Hilaires before 
him. 

So the rabbit and the hare are of such a nature that, al- 
though presenting in appearance a great conformity, they 
cannot reproduce together.* 

Such is the general result of crossing two different spe- 
cies. 

In many cases, the union of two individuals of different 
species is fertile, but the offspring cannot reproduce. For 
example, I refer you to the union of the ass and horse. This 
union produces the mule. All the mules in the world are 
the offspring of the jackass and the mare. Now, these ani- 
mals are numerous, for in Spain and in tropical America 
they are much preferred for work to horses, because of 
their resistance to fatigue. The hinny^ less in demand, 
because less robust than the mule, is the result of an in- 
verse cross ; it is the offspring of the horse and the ass. 
The hinny, like the mule, cannot reproduce its kind. 
* See Appendix C. 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 25 

When we wish for either, we must have recourse to the 
two species. 

Finally, in extremely rare exceptions, the fertility per- 
sists in the offspring, but it is much diminished. It dimin- 
ishes still more in the grandchildren, and it is extinguished 
in the third or fourth generation at the most. This is the 
case when we unite the canary-bird with the goldfinch. 

I might here accumulate a mass of analogous facts and 
details. But over them all would appear a great general 
fact including them, which is the expression of a law ; 
and here is this fact : notwithstanding observations reach- 
ing back for thousands of years, and made on hundreds of 
species, we do not yet know a single example of interme- 
diate species obtained by the crossing of animals belonging 
to different species. 

This general fact explains how order is maintained in 
the present living creation. If it had been otherwise, 
the animal world and the vegetable world would be filled 
with intermediate groups, passing into each other by in- 
sensible shades, and, in the midst of this confusion, it 
would be impossible for even naturalists to make discrimi- 
nations. 

The general conclusion from all this is, that infertility 
is the law when animals of different species unite (Hteei- 
dization). 

"V\nien, on the contrary, individuals which are only of 
different races, but of the same species, are brought to- 
gether, that is to say, when we produce a mongrel, is the 
result the same ? No, it is exactly contrary. 

These crossings are always fertile, and sometimes more 
so than the union of animals of the same race. But es- 
pecially the children and grandchildren are also as fertile 
as the parents and grandparents ; so much so that they 
propagate their kind indefinitely. The difficulty here is 
not to procure mixed races ; the difficulty is, when we 



26 THE NATUKAL HISTOEY OF MAN. 

have pure races that we desire to preserve, to keep strange 
blood from modifying them. 

Races thrive by crossing — that is, by the union of differ- 
ent races of the same species, they multiply abundantly 
around us ; such are our street-dogs, our roof-cats, our 
coach-horses, all our animals where the race is indistinct ; 
because, by cross-breeding in all directions, the di£Ferential 
characters have become confounded. 

So far from experiencing difficulty in obtaining off- 
spring from races, the men who are occupied with cattle, 
with sheep, with horses, amateurs in dogs, in pigeons, 
know with what watchful care they must protect their fa- 
vorite race. 

Here, then, is a general fact, and from this fact it re- 
sults that fertility is the law of union hetioeen animals 
belonging to different races (Mixed Breeding).* 

Here, gentlemen, you see the great distinction, the 
fundamental distinction, between species 2indi race. And, 
it is all the more important to recognize and record this 
distinction, as it facilitates experiment. When you have 
two different vegetables, or two different animals, and wish 
to know whether they belong to two distinct species, or 
only to two races of the same species, marry them. If the 
union proves immediately fertile, if the fertility is propa- 
gated and persists, you may affirm that, notwithstanding 
the differences which separate them, these vegetables and 
these animals are only races of the same species. If, on 
the contrary, you see the fertilitj^ disappear completely or 
diminish notably at the first union, if you see it decreas- 
ing, and go on diminishing, to disappear at the end of a 
few generations, you may without hesitation affirm that 
these vegetables and these animals belong to distinct 
species.] 

Gentlemen, I have discoursed at length of vegetables 
* See Appendix D. f See Appendix E. 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 27 

and animals, of the coffee-tree, of the turkey, of the rabbit, 
of the dog, of the cat, of cattle, etc., and you may think 
that I am forgetting man. On the contrary, I have not 
ceased to think of him. 

"What is our question concerning man? Distinctly 
this. 

Look once more at these designs. They show you 
differences, marked enough, between the human groups, 
although less considerable than at first appears. 

Now, we do not know the type or the primitive types 
of these human groups. 

Even when we encounter one or several men, present- 
ing the characters of these types, we cannot identify them, 
for lack of historical documents upon the subject. Conse- 
quently, if we judge by the looks, if we take account only 
of the men themselves, we cannot decide whether the differ- 
ences they present are differences of race or differences of 
species j whether man is to be considered as arising from a 
single primitive stock, oi: whether we ought to suppose 
several primitive stocks. 

But we have already said, and we again repeat, that 
man is an organized and living being ; and, as such, he 
obeys all the general laws which govern all organized and 
living beings ; he consequently obeys the laws of crossing. 
These, then, we must interrogate, to find out whether there 
is 07ie or several species of men. 

Take, for example, the two most distinct types, those 
which, more than any others, seem separated by profound 
differences — the white man and the negro. 

If these types really constitute distinct species, their 
union ought to bear the stamp w^e have found to charac- 
terize the unions between animals and vegetables of differ- 
ent species. In the great majority of cases they should be 
infertile ; in all the remainder, slightly fertile ; the fertility 
should soon disappear and they should not be able to form 



28 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 



intermediate groups between the negro and the white. 
If these two men are only races of one and the same 
species, their union, on the contrary, should be very fertile ; 
the fertility should be kept up by their descendants, and 
intermediate races ought to be formed. 



Fig. 5. 




Young Esquimaux. 

Well, gentlemen, the facts here are decisive, and admit 
of no hesitation. It is scarcely three centuries since the 
white m^n par excellejice— the European— made, so to say, 
the conquest of the world ; he has gone everyw^here, and 
everywhere he has found local races, human groups that 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 29 

do not resemble him; everywhere he has crossed with 
them, and the unions have been very fertile, sometimes 
very sensibly more fertile than those of the indigenous peo- 
ple themselves. 

And further, in consequence of a detestable institution 
which happily has never sullied the soil of France, in con- 
sequence of slavery, the Avhite has taken the negro every- 
where, everywhere he has crossed with his slaves, and 
ever3^ where a mulatto population has been formed. Every- 
where, also, the negro has crossed with the local groups, 
and everywhere there have sprung up intermediate races, 
which, by their characters, proclaim this double origin. 
The white, finally, has crossed with these mixed breeds, 
and hence has resulted in certain parts of the globe, and 
notably in America, an inextricable mass of mixed peoples, 
perfectly comparable with our street-dogs and roof-cats. 

The rapidity with which these mixed races cross and 
multiply is truly remarkable. It is hardly three centuries, 
about twelve generations, since the European spread over 
all parts of the world. Well, we estimate that already 
one-seventieth of the total population of the globe are 
mixtures, resulting from the cross of the whites with indige 
nous peoples. 

In certain states of South America where the mixture 
began earlier, where the European arrived in the first days 
of discovery, a quarter of the population is composed of 
cross-breeds, and in some regions the proportion is more 
than half. 

You see, our experience is to-day as complete as possi- 
ble. Unless we deny all modern science, unless we would 
make man a solitary exception in the midst of organic and 
living beings, we must admit that all men form only one 
and the same species, composed of a certain number of 
different races ; we must, therefore, admit that all men may 
be considered as descended from a single primitive pair. 



30 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

You see, gentlemen, we have reached this conclusion, 
outside of all species of dogmatic or theological considera- 
tion, outside of all species of philosophical or metaphysical 

Fig. G. 




Sir Salar Jung, K. S. I. 
Brown Eace, Hindoo Branch. 



consideration. Observation and experiment alone, applied 
to the animal and vegetable kingdom, science, in a word, 
leads us logically to this conclusion ; there exists but one 
species of men. 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 31 

This result, I do not fear to say, is of great and serious 
importance, for it gives to the thought of universal brother- 
hood the only foundation that many people now recognize, 
that of science and reason. 

I hope, gentlemen, that my demonstration has convinced 
you. However, I am not unaware of the fact, and you 
doubtless also know, that all anthropologists are not agreed. 
There are among my fellow-laborers a certain number of 
men, even of great men, who believe in the plurality of the 
human species. Perhaps you may have come in contact 
with them. Well, listen, then, with attention to the rea- 
sons they bring in support of their view. You will easily 
see that all these reasons may be summed up in this : 
There is too much difference between the negro and the 
white man to permit them to belong to the same species. 

Then you reply: Between the white or black water- 
spaniel and the greyhound, between the bull-dog and the 
lapdog, there is much more difference than between the 
European and the inhabitant of Africa, and yet the grey- 
hound and the water-spaniel, the bull-dog and the lapdog, 
are equally dogs. 

They will perhaps add : How could the same primitive 
man, whatever his characters might be, give birth to the 
white man and the negro ? 

You will answer : How has the wild-turkey, of which 
we know the origin, of which we know the grandparents, 
how has the wild-rabbit, which we find still among us, how 
have they been able to give birth to all our domestic races ? 

We cannot, T repeat, explain rigorously the how and 
the why ; but this we know, the fact exists, and we find its 
general explanation in the conditions of existence, in the 
conditions of the environment. 

Now, man, who has progressed upon the earth a much 
longer time than the .turkey or the rabbit, who has been 
upon the globe for thousands of years, living under the 



32 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

most diverse, the most opposite conditions, multiplying 
further the causes of modification by his manners, his 
habits, his kind of life, by the more or less care he takes of 
himself — man, I say, is certainly found in conditions of 
variation much more marked than those which have been 
encountered by the animals we have cited. It is not, then, 
surprising that men, from one group to another, present 
differences of which we here see the specimens. If there 
is any thing in them to astonish us, it is that these differ- 
ences are not more considerable. 

In your turn you ask of the polygenesists — for this is 
the name given to the philosophers who believe in the 
multiplicity of the human species — how is it that when the 
white man comes to any country whatever, at the antipodes, 
in America, in Polynesia — how is it, I say, that everywhere 
he crosses with human groups that differ most completely 
from him ; that these unions are always fertile, and that 
everywhere he has left traces of his passage in producing 
a mixed population ? 

If you press your interlocutor a little, he will quite 
often deny the reality of species ; he will thus put himself 
in contradiction with all naturalists without exception, 
botanists or zoologists — with all the eminent minds who, 
following Buffon, Tournefort, Jussieu, Cuvier, Geoffroy 
Saint-Hilaire, have studied vegetables and animals, out- 
ride of all discussion, and without thought of man. 

In thus dealing with the question, the polygenesist falls 
into disagreement with the best-established science. 

Sometimes, also, you will hear him declare that man is 
an exception, that he has his particular laws, that the argu- 
ments taken from plants and animals are not applicable to 
him. Answer him, then, in the name of physiology ,"in the 
name of all the natural sciences, that he is certainly mis- 
taken. 

It is quite as impossible that an organized and living 



THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 33 

body should escape the laws of organization and life as 
that material substances should escape the laws that govern 
inorganic matter. Therefore, man, an organized and living 
being, obeys, as such, all general laws, and those of cross- 
ing like the rest. The conclusion we have drawn is then 
legitimate, and the nature of the arguments employed to 
combat it is a further proof in its favor. 

Gentlemen, the subject of this lecture, which has oc- 
cupied about an hour, at the Museum took up an entir.e 
course. The exposition has necessarily been brief. But I 
hope you have seen reasons strong enough to make you 
accept my view. 

If doubts remain, try to come to my lectures. Some of 
you will be able, perhaps. I sometimes see working-men 
on the seats of my lecture-room, and I can testify to the 
interest of some among them. I own I was happy to see 
the attention they gave to these exalted questions. It 
would give me great pleasure to see at the Jardin des 
Plantes some of my audience at Vincemies. 



LECTURE II. 

THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

Gentlemen : I shall to-day continue the Natural His- 
tory of Man. Those of you who were present at our first 
lecture know that it was devoted to the examination of a 
fundamental question. We inquired if all the men living 
upon earth, however they may differ among themselves, 
are of one and the same species ; that is, if they are to be 
regarded as descended from a single primitive pair. 

To answer this question, we appealed to science alone. 
We started with the principle that, so far as the body is 
concerned, man is an animal — nothing more, nothing less ; 
that, consequently, all the general laws to which animals 
are subject bear upon him, and he cannot evade their do- 
minion. 

We then asked, not only of animals, but also of plants. 
What is meant by the word species f and we were led to 
distinguish species from race. 

Without going into the details I then gave, this distinc- 
tion is easily established. When two individuals of differ- 
ent species unite, the union is almost always infertile, and^ 
if the first union is fertile, the offspring, either immediately 
or at the end of a few generations, will reproduce no more. 
So that, between two species, we cannot establish a third 
series of individuals, starting at first with a father and a 
mother taken from two distinct species. The examples I 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 35 

gave are known to you all. When we unite a jackass with 
a mare, an ass. with a stallion, we obtain a mule or a hinny, 
and never a horse or an ass ; and, to get mules, it is always 
necessary to have recourse to a jackass and a mare. 

When, on the contrary, we take two individuals of two 
different races of the same species, whatever their differ- 
ences of exterior conformation, the resulting individual is 
fertile, and may give birth to an intermediate series of in- 
dividuals between the two races. 

As examples, I took the different races of dogs, of 
sheep, of cattle. Whatever the skin, the color, the form, 
the proportions of the dog, he is still a dog; whatever the 
proportions, the figure, the color of horses or of oxen, they 
remain horses and oxen. So, when we cross a water- 
spaniel with a greyhound, a lap-dog with an Havana dog, 
the offspring are fertile, and we get what are called fertile 
mixed races. 

Now, when human beings unite with each other, what- 
ever their exterior differences, whether they are w^hite, or 
black, or yellow, these marriages are fertile. From this 
fact, verified a thousand times, w^e draw the conclusion that 
there is but one species of men, and that the differences 
existing between them are only differences of race. Again 
1 say, in reaching this conclusion, we have never gone 
beyond science. I repeat this declaration, because, in all 
that I shall say to you, I wish you distinctly to understand 
that I never put foot outside the domain of science, where 
alone the scientific man can speak with authority. 

The unity of the human species once demonstrated, 
many problems rise before us. 

The first is that of the antiquity of man. Have men 
been always upon the earth ? Did they appear at the 
same time with the other species of animals ? Are they 
very ancient on the globe ? Such are the first questions 
which present themselves to our minds. 



86 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN 



Throughout all time have men lived on the earth? 
Many of you, doubtless, are already able to answer me. 
My brother professors of geology and paleontology have 
probably addressed you on these questions. I shall only 
recall to you the general facts bearing upon the case. 



Fig. 7. 




Extinct Elephant, or Mammoth. 



You all know what is the action of heat upon certain 
bodies. For example, you all know that water heated to 
a certain degree vaporizes ; that if this vapor loses a cer- 
tain quantity of heat, it is liquefied ; that in losing still 
more, it forms a solid bodj — ice. This ice may become 
so solid, that in St. Petersburg they have been able to con- 
struct it into palaces, and have made cannons of ice that 
have been fired. You can understand that a sufficient 
quantity of heat will reduce all bodies to vapor, and that 
sufficient cold will solidify them. 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 37 

Now, the facts of astronomy seem to prove that, of old, 
our earth, with all it contains, and all the materials that 
compose it, began as a vast, vaporous mass diffused in 
space. It was a globe of vapor. When the process of 
cooling set in, this mass became liqmd, and, during periods 
of time which we cannot compute, it was only an immense 
mass of rocks and of matter melted by fire. 

It is needless to insist on the fact that, at this epoch, 
on the surface of our globe, there were no living beings, 
and consequently no men. 

The cooling progressing, there is formed a pellicle on 
the surface of the globe, and this pellicle goes on increas- 
ing in thickness. This is what we will call the primitive 
earth. On this primitive earth, during a long period, 
water could not exist in a liquid state, and consequently 
there were as yet upon our globe no living beings, for all 
these beings need water ; and, of course, no men. 

But the process of cooling continued. The water which 
was vaporized in the atmosphere fell in torrents on this 
crust which enveloped the globe ; chemical reactions, of a 
violence of which we can form no idea, were produced. 
At this moment began the formation of what we call the 
earth of transport, and the globe entered upon what is 
known as the Secondary epoch. 

Strictly we may say that, from the moment the waters 
rested in a liquid state upon the surface of the earth, life 
might begin to manifest itself. In certain thermal waters 
of high temperature, we find confervaB — microscopic vege- 
tables which are already organized and living. But no 
animal could yet live in this medium, for the heat would 
coagulate its albumen. Later, the cooling always pro- 
gressing and the sea enveloping the greater part of the 
globe, more complex vegetables appeared. Soon animals, 
chiefly aquatic, made their appearance, and among them I 
would mention those gigantic reptiles you have sometimes 



38 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

seen represented in certain book announcements on the 
walls of Paris. Mammals — man^could not yet inhabit 
our globe. 

As the cooling progressed, continents were formed by 
the upturnings of Nature. The time came when true mam- 
mals and birds, analogous to living species, appeared in 
their turn. This was the commencement of the Tertiary 
epoch. Then, very probablj^, man might have lived. We 
shall presently have to ask if he did not exist, at least in 
the latter part of this period. 

The dislocation of the crust of the globe elevated the 
mountains, dug the valleys, sank the seas, formed the con- 
tinents, and, toward the end of the Tertiary period, the 
globe presented a surface much resembling what we see 
now. Here commences the Quaternary period. This quater- 
nary period presents to us a very remarkable phenomenon. 

Up to this time, putting out of account the slight oscil- 
lations that have occurred, the globe seems to have cooled 
in a nearly uniform manner, from the period when it formed 
only a mass of vapor, down to the Tertiary epoch. With 
the Quaternary period came a moment wherein a cooling, 
perhaps sudden, but in any case very marked, showed it- 
self and then disappeared. 

At this time, a part of the globe at least, and Europe 
in particular, was much colder than it is now. We have 
proof of it in the glaciers of the Alps. Instead of stopping 
in the place where they do now, these glaciers filled most 
of the Swiss valleys, descending even in the valley of the 
Rhone ; and from one end to the other of these valleys 
enormous blocks of rock were transported by the glaciers, 
and left on the spot. It is these which now constitute 
what we call erratic blocks. 

During the Quaternary epoch, there lived in France 
very different animals from those which we find now. 
Among them I may refer to the great cave-bears, which • 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 39 

weTe remarkable for their size and for their bulging fore- 
heads. ' I will also mention the hyena. You know that 
now we have no hyenas, and that they are only found in 
countries much warmer than France. To the preceding 
species I will add the rhinoceros. I call attention particu- 
larly to an elephant, of which this is the picture (Fig. 7), 
and which we call the mammoth. This elephant, you see, 
is easily distinguished from species now living ; by its size, 
first, for it is much larger than they ; then by the form of 
its remarkably recurved tusks ; finally and chiefly because, 
in the place of the naked skin of the elephants we know, 
he was covered with a thick wool and very long hairs. 

Of these things we are certain ; for this elephant has 
been found preserved whole, with his skin and hair. At 
different times there have been discovered in the frozen 
earth of Siberia the dead bodies of these animals. That 
country contains in such great numbers the tusks of these 
antediluvian elephants, to employ a vulgar expression, that 
the commerce in fossil ivory constitutes a considerable 
source of revenue, and the state reserves a monopoly of it. 

I call special attention to this elephant, and we shall 
presently see why. 

The Quaternary period ended as those that preceded it ; 
and then began the present period. Since the time of its 
commencement, the continents, the flora, and the faunae, 
have not undergone any considerable modifications. 

Nobody has ever questioned the existence of man at 
the beginning of the present period, and some have even 
considered his appearance as the characteristic feature of 
this period. But did man exist before ? To use the com- 
mon expression, were there antediluvian men ? In other 
words, and to return to scientific language, is man the con- 
temporary of those animal species among which appears 
the mammoth ? May .he be found, like the mammoth, in a 
fossil state ? 



40 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 



Such is the question that has been often asked, and 
which was long answered in the negative. Down to these 
later times, the most eminent men in Natural History, in 



Fig. 8. 



Fie. 9. 





Sec6£civ 

Arrow-shaped Flint Implements. 



Greology, in Paleontology, were all agreed on this point; 
even Cuvier never admitted the existence of fossil man. 

To-day we are led by many well-ascertained facts to 
answer this question very differently. We are forced to 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 41 

admit that fossil man does really exist, and that man was 
contemporary with those species of animals I have been 
speaking of, especially with the mammoth. 

This is certainly one of the most remarkable discoveries 
of modern times ! The ground for it was laid by the es- 
tablishment of a number of facts observed in England, in 
Germany, in France. But the honor of having brought 
decisive proofs, which convince everybody, belongs incon- 
testably to two Frenchmen — to M. Boucher de Perthes, 
and to M. Edouard Lartet. 

M. Boucher de Perthes, the eminent archaeologist of 
Abbeville, while inspecting the excavations made in the 
earth around his native village, at Menchecourt, and at Mou- 
lin-Quignon, discovered stones fashioned in a peculiar man- 
ner, and the same form was constantly reproduced. It was 
soon evident to him that this circumstance was not acci- 
dental, but that these stones owed their form to human 
industry. Now, these polished flints (Figs. 8 and 9), these 
stone hatchets (Figs. 10 and 11), were found in the earth 
associated with the bones of elephants; whence he con- 
cluded that the men who had fashioned them lived at the 
same epoch with those great mammifers long since ex- 
tinct. 

This conclusion, drawn by M. Boucher de Perthes, was 
at first vigorously disputed. Some of the men whose de- 
cisions have justly the highest authority on questions re- 
lating to the history of the earth, thought that the chipped 
flints and the bones of elephants were found together in 
the same bed because this bed had been altered. They 
said : A first bed was formed which inclosed the bones of 
elephants. On this bed, during the present period, men 
lived, and have left these chipped flints as a trace of their 
presence. Then came a mighty tempest, which rolled and 
confounded together the hatchets and the elephants' bones. 
Hence we now find them side by side, although the bed in 



42 THE NATUEAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

which they are found contains the remains of two perfectly 
distinct epochs. 

It will be apparent to you that, if, in our day, men 
were buried in this bed of Menchecourt and of Moulin- 
Quignon and, if a great storm should come and mingle 
these modern bones with the hatchets and bones of ele- 
phants, our grandchildren would find them all mixed to- 

FiG. 10. Fig. 11. 




Flint Hatchets. 



gether, and yet the men of to-day are not contemporaneous 
with the hatchets you see before you. 

The objection was all the stronger for having been 
advanced, as I have said, by the highest authorities in 
Geology. This is why I attach such importance to the 
facts for which we are indebted to M. Lartet, and which 
entirely refute these conjectures. 

M. Lartet studied at Aurignac, in the south of France, 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 43 

a burial-place of these remote times. It is a grotto ex- 
cavated in the side of a hill, at a height which is not at- 
tained by water-courses analogous to those of which w^e 
find the trace in the neighborhood of Abbeville. This 
sepulchral grotto at the time of discovery was closed by a 
slab taken from a bed of rocks at some distance from this 
point. In the interior were found the bones of seventeen 
persons, men, women, and children ; and before the entrance, 
the well-attested remains of a fireplace. There were traces 
of funeral repasts that the first inhabitants of our country 
were in the habit of making, and such as we sometimes 
find in our own day among certain European people. In 
the ashes of this fireplace were found bones scorched by 
fire, and excrements of wild animals. These bones were 
those of the bear and rhinoceros. The excrements be- 
longed to a species of hyena contemporaneous with the 
preceding animals. Here, consequently, man appears as 
eating the animals in question; as making his repast of 
those very animals whose contemporaneousness with him 
had been disputed. 

M. Lartet crowned these beautiful researches by dis- 
covering in a cave, in the centre of France, a piece of ivory 
(Fig. 12) on which was unmistakably represented the very- 
mammoth to which I have just called your attention. It 
is very evident that it could only be made b}' a man w^ho 
lived at the same time with this elephant. 

- In view of M. Lartet's discoveries, we must admit the 
existence of fossil man, that is to say, the coexistence of 
our species with the lost species of animals of which I have 
spoken. 

Since this epoch, besides, we have not only found traces 
of these primitive industries, but debris of jawbones, and 
entire crania. Hence we can judge of the characters which 
distinguished our first, ancestors. Strange to tell, we find 
that these rnen who, even in France, warred with stone 



44 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

weapons such as I have shown you, against the elephant 
and the rhinoceros, have still at the present day in Europe 
descendants presenting the same characters. 

So man lived in the Quaternary epoch. May we go 
further, and admit that he also existed during the Tertiary 
epoch ? Was he contemporaneous, not only with the rhi- 
noceros and mammoth, of which I have spoken, but also 
with earlier mammals ? 

The question is perhaps still premature. Some facts 
seem to indicate that it is so ; but in such matters it is 
better to adjourn conviction than to admit opinions that 
are yet in doubt. Consequently, we shall regard the de- 
bate as remaining open. 

After demonstrating that man goes back in geologic 
time to an epoch much anterior to that in which we 
formerly believed, we are naturally led to ask if it is pos- 
sible to estimate in figures this antiquity of our species. 
We are obliged up to the present time to answer, No. 
We can perfectly establish relative epochs ; but we cannot 
judge of the number of years that each of these epochs 
represents. 

This, however, has been attempted. From calculations 
of the time required to form a bed of peat, some have 
attempted to compute the duration of certain periods, 
of the age of stone, of the age of bronze, and of the age 
of iron. 

But the results have been so discordant as to throw 
doubt upon the method. Then the accumulations of debris 
thrown up by torrents of the Alps have been studied, and, 
in particular, tlie one known under the name of the cone 
of Tinniere. A railroad has cut through these materials, 
which have probably been accumulating ever since the com- 
mencement of the present epoch, and in the cut there have 
been found debris reaching back in one case to the Gallo- 
Roman epoch, in others to the Roman epoch — these to the 



Fig. 12. 




Sketch of Fossil Mamraoth on Ivory, found among Cave Relics. 



4:6 TKE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

epoch of iron, those to that of bronze, and, finally, to the 
epoch of stone. 

As we know the duration of some of these periods, it 
has been thought possible by a simple proportion, taking 
account of the thickness of the beds, to go back to the 
time of the first formation of the cone. But here, again, 
I repeat, the results are so uncertain that we do not give 
them any serious confidence. 

We cannot, then, give precise figures. Yet, from all 
these researches, and from archseologic facts not less de- 
monstrated, it results that it is necessary to go back much 
further than we have been accustomed to, in seeking for 
the advent of man upon the earth. Let me cite you just 
one of these proofs. 

You were at the Universal Exposition — ^probably you 
entered the Egyptian Temple. At the bottom of the hall, 
facing the entrance, you saw a statue — that of King 
Cephren. This statue goes back something like four 
thousand years before our era. Consequenth', it was 
sculptured about six thousand years ago. Now, you may 
know that the work was very difficult, for the stone of 
which it is made is very hard. The statue is remarkably 
perfect. From this, as well as from other data, w^e learn 
that in Egypt, six thousand years ago, civilization was al- 
ready much advanced. We must, therefore, date back the 
origin of the Egyptians more than six thousand years. 
But we shall presently see that Egypt was not the first 
inhabited country. Man must have come there from his 
original home. Consequently, his first appearance on the 
globe will be found much more remote in time. 

So we are now certain of the existence of Quaternary 
man ; we already suspect the existence of Tertiary man, 
and it is in France that the discoveries which led to these 
conclusions were made. 

Is it, then, in our country, in the vicinity of Abbeville, 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 47 

or of Aurignac, that man first appeared ? Now, he is 
found everywhere : did he arise everywhere ? or was his 
original abode at some particular point of the globe, and 
did he afterward disperse in all directions ? If this be so, 
where is the privileged spot which gave him birth ? Such 
are the questions that arise after that of the antiquity of man. 

There has been much discussion on these questions. 
It has been said, and some still say, that men have origi- 
nated where we find tliem. But a more careful study, a 
more profound knowledge of the laws that regulate organic 
and living beings, leads to the opposite conclusion. 

Observe that here we can no longer appeal to the sci- 
ences which hitherto have served as our guide. Anatomy 
and physiology teach us nothing concerning the place of 
man's origin, his first dispersion, or his original home. It 
is all the same with regard to physiology, whether man ap- 
peared at a single point, or whether he appeared at several 
points at the same time. To study these questions we 
must interrogate another order of ideas and facts, but with- 
out on that account changing the method. We must al- 
ways recur to other organized and living beings. It is to 
botanical and zoological geography that we now appeal. 

Plants and animals are not distributed by chance upon 
the earth. Their distribution is subject to precise laws; 
and, because living and organic beings in general obey the 
same laws, man ought to follow the laws of geography as 
well as animals and plants. 

Now, these laws of botanical and zoological geography 
teach us that, in certain parts, the flora and fauna are char- 
acterized by certain species ; that the globe is partitioned 
off into a certain number of provinces that have their par- 
ticular vegetables and animals. These provinces have been 
called centres of creation. 

It is natural enough to ask if each centre of creation has 
not had its own particular man, as it has had its peculiar 

o 



48 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

vegetables and its peculiar animals. Led astray by cer- 
tain coincidences, more apparent than real, some natu- 
ralists have replied in the affirmative. But, whoever will 
examine the question closely, will find that it is an error ; 
for this mode of reasoning makes man a single exception 
among all organic and living beings. Now, you know we 
do not admit this to be possible. Man ought to obey the 
laws of geography as he obeys the laws of physiology. 

I cannot enter into all the details required for the com- 
plete demonstration of this statement, but limit mj^self to 
two facts that I hope will suffice to convince you. 

The first is : not a single species of vegetable, not a 
single species of animal, is found at the same time all over 
the globe. 

The most wide-spread species occupied at first only a 
small part of the earth, and man must have carried with 
him not only certain vegetables but also certain animals, to 
find them as widely diffused as they are in our day. Not- 
withstanding this intelligent and voluntary intervention, 
you well know that there are certain parts of the globe 
occupied by man in which neither the vegetables that have 
accompanied us almost everywhere, nor the animals which 
we habitually transport, can survive. Man, on the con- 
trary, is cosmopolitan in every sense of the word ; that is 
to say, we find him everywhere, amid the ice of the poles, 
as under the equator. 

Hence, if he had originated wherever we find him, he 
would constitute a single exception among all organic and 
living beings, whether vegetable or animal. 

This reason, alone, ought to make us accept at least 
this much : that man has, at all events, peopled a part of 
the globe by emigration. 

But we may go much further; and always, in conse- 
quence of the law I have just stated, we may say that he 
had his origin in one spot, and that a narrow one. 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 49 

In fact, when we study animals, we find that the area 
occupied by a species, what we call its habitat, is as much 
less extended as the species is more perfected, more ele- 
vated, in the zoological series. 

Not only is this true of species, but of types themselves. 

Thus, below man, the animal form which most reminds 
us of the human is, you know, that of the monkey. Are 
monkeys among the number of the most widely-distributed 
animals ? No. The monkey-type is found neither in very 
cold countries nor in the greater part of the temperate re- 
gions, but only in the warmest parts of the globe. Besides, 
a great part of Oceanica contains not a single monkey. 

If, now, w^e no longer consider the type, the entire 
group of monkeys, but only the species which approach 
nearest to us, we see them occupying an area still more 
limited. America has not a single species of monke}^ in 
common with Africa and Asia. And, when we come to 
the most perfect monkeys — to those which, by reason of 
their great resemblance to man, have been called anthro- 
poid, that is, with a human form — we see the area of their 
habitat is restricted still more and becomes extremely nar- 
row. So the orang-outang, which some have wished to 
make our ancestor, is found only in the isle of Borneo, or 
at most, perhaps, in the isle of Sumatra ; the gorilla, still 
another of the species which comes nearest man in his gen- 
eral proportions, occupies only a small part of the western 
regions of Africa. 

Now, man is everywhere, and still he is incontestably, 
even from the point of view of his body, very superior to 
the monkeys. He alone has true hands, those marvelous 
instruments which you know so well how to use ; he alone 
possesses a brain of which the size of the skull attests the 
development. Without speaking of other characters, man 
is evidently superior to all monkeys by his hand and his 
brain. 



50 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 



Well, then, the monkey — which, although so distant 
from man, still comes nearest to him — occupies but a re- 
stricted habitat ; while man, the superior being par excel- 
lence^ has originated, you say, simultaneously everywhere ! 



Fig. 13. 




Native of Peejee. 
Black Race, Eastern Branch, Papuan Family. 

Evidently, gentlemen, to accept this interpretation of facts 

will be to make him a single exception among all organized 

beings ; and so, I repeat, we can never accept this conclusion. 

You see, we are led to admit, not only that man origi- 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 51 

nated in one single place upon the globe, but further, that r 
this was a limited region — of very small extent. It was 
probably not greater than the habitat now allowed either 
to the gorillas or the orangs. 

Can we go still further ? Can we determine the par- 
ticular spot of the globe where arose this privileged species 
vi'hich was to go forth and conquer the whole earth ? We 
cannot answer this question with the same confidence as 
the others. But we may answer it with great probability. 
According to all appearances, the point where man origi- 
nated, and whence he emigrated to all parts of the globe, 
was situated somewhere in the centre of Asia.* 

The reasons W'hich lead us to this conclusion are of 
many kinds. I can only indicate the two following : 

Around the elevated central region that you see pict- 
ured upon the chart in the heart of Asia, we find the three 
fundamental types of humanity: the black man, the yellow 
man, and the white man. Black men are at the present 
time widely enough dispersed. We see them still, how- 
ever, in the peninsula of Malacca and in the isles of Anda- 
man. Again, we find traces of these blacks in the east of 
Asia, at the isle of Formosa, at the south of Japan, and in 
the Philippines : the Melanesia belong to them. The yel- 
low race occupies almost all the southeast part and even 
the centre of Asia ; and finally we know that from this 
elevated central region came the great white race which 
to-day rules everywhere — the Aryan race, that to which 
we belong. The groups, more or less pure, are besides re- 
lated to each other by a multitude of intermediates which 
may be regarded as transitional. 

It is not only by the features, by fundamental physical 
traits, that the men found around this immense table-land 
are interrelated and seem to blend into one another. We 
see, furthermore, on the sides of this vast table-land, the 
three essential types of language — the most striking intel- 
lectual manifestation of man. 

* See Appendix F. 



52 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

We shall come to this question by-and-bj, but to-day I 
may say to 3'ou that we distinguish three fundamental forms 
of human language : monosyllabic languages, in which each 
word has but one syllable ; agglutinated languages, in which 
the words are welded together ; and, finally, flexible lan- 
guages, which resemble the language now generally spoken 
in Europe. 

Now, we find around this central plateau of Asia the 
monosyllabic language, par excellence^ all over the Chinese 
Empire ; on the north an assemblage of peoples speaking 
agglutinative languages, and extending even to Europe. 
Then, again, we have the portion occupied by the Aryan 
race, speaking the flexible languages. So the three lin- 
guistic types are represented around this table-land of Asia 
the same as the three fundamental physical types. It 
seems that, almost from his cradle, man has presented all 
the essential modifications that he could undergo. 

I pass to another question. Man, starting from a sin- 
gle and limited spot, has spread all over the globe. Conse- 
quently, he has peopled the globe by emigration and colo- 
nization. Such is the conclusion drawn from actual facts 
interpreted by science alone. But, is it possible to people 
the earth by human migration ? Some say no ; and make 
this assertion an objection to the ideas that I have just 
indicated. 

I own that, for my part, this has always surprised me. 
Migrations — colonizations ! why, they occur everywhere in 
history, and particularly in our own history. 

Go back as far as we may, we see populations in move- 
ment from one end of continents to the other ; so that, to 
say a priori that man has always lived where we find him, 
is to contradict all historical documents. 

However, some have insisted that certain migrations 
were beyond human power and intelligence. I will give 
you two examples to show that migrations are always pos- 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 53 

sible, even when the conditions in the midst of which they 
take place seem made expressly to arrest them. 

We must distinguish, in migrations, those over land 
from those across seas. 

As to migrations by land, it is very evident that, when 

Fia. 14. 




Siamese Domestic. 
Yellow Race, Sinaic Branch, Indo-Chinese Family. 

men have to war only against brute Nature, nothing can 
prevent their passage, especially when they can choose 
their moment. But I add that men will emigrate, even 



54 THE NATURAL HISTOEY OF MAN. 

when they have to combat all difficulties united, not only 
the rigors of physical Nature, but also the action of man, 
who alone absolutely arrests man. 

For example, I will cite a fact borrowed from the his- 
tory of the Calmucks : 

Toward 1616, according to Chinese dates, a horde of 
these people, for some reason which we do not know, left 
the country bordering upon China, crossed the whole of 
Asia, and established themselves on the banks of the Volga. 
There they accepted the sovereignty of Russia, and for 
more than a century rendered good service to the empire. 
But there came a time when the Calmucks found that the 
Russian yoke was growing more and more oppressive. To 
throw it off, they decided to emigrate, and return to the 
country of their ancestors. The tribe had settled on either 
bank of the Volga, and, in order to come together at a de- 
termined place, it had been arranged to start in the dead 
of winter, at a time when the ice w^ould be strong enough 
to allow the people on the right bank to gain the left bank 
of the river. On a given day, all the people of the left 
bank came together ; but some unknown cause hindered 
the people of the right bank from crossing. The number 
of emigrants was, however, very considerable, for, includ- 
ing women and children, there were two hundred and fifty 
thousand. The rear-guard was composed of a select body 
of horsemen, which counted eighty thousand men. You 
see, here was an emigration of an entire people. 

From the beginning of the journey, the leaders under- 
stood that they must hasten ; for, at the first news of their 
departure, the Russians gave orders to pursue the fugitives. 
A regular army was soon organized and advancing up- 
on them, preceded by a host of Cossacks. These sworn 
enemies of the Calmucks massacred all those that strayed 
away any distance from the main body. Although it was 
the 5th of January, 1771, when they started, this entire 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 



55 



people traversed the intervening regions, arriving on the 
following September on the frontiers of China. 

In this long journey of more than 700 leagues, this 
wandering horde was constantly pursued by the Russian 
army, obliged to advance always by forced marches, to 
open a passage through hostile countries, harassed not 
onl}'^ by the Cossacks but also by the Kirgheez, and the 
Bashkeers, the most savage and warlike inhabitants of these 
countries, who gave them not a single moment's peace. 



Fig. 15. 




Tartab or Kasak (Russian). 
White Race, European Branch, Slavonic Family. 

I forgot to say that the winter, ahvays very severe in 
these regions, was exceptionally so at this time ; that in 
the first eight days all the beasts of burden perished, and 
that they had to burn their tents to obtain a moment's 



56 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

warmth. The women, the children, the aged, and men in 
their vigor, perished by thousands from the cold. This 
journey was, in reality, for these people, what the retreat 
from Russia was for the French army ; but with this differ- 
ence, that the Oal mucks emigrated in families, with women 
and children, so that the disaster would be much more ter- 
rible. Winter was followed by summer ; and, much as 
they had suffered from cold, they suffered equally from 
heat, and, above all, from want of water. There was even 
a time w^hen the entire body of Calmucks, at the sight of 
water, disbanded to quench the thirst that devoured them. 
The rear-guard itself yielded to the temptation. The Bash- 
keers and the Kirgheez, taking advantage of this disorder, 
fell upon the multitude and put them to great slaughter. 
Happily, Kien-Lon^ was engaged in the chase in these 
parts, and, as is usual with the Emperors of China, he was 
accompanied by a real army, in which were several bat- 
teries of artillery. He fired some pieces of cannon on the 
Kirgheez and the Bashkeers. The Calmucks recovered 
their coolness, defended themselves, and all that remained 
of these people were saved. The emperor immediately 
gave them food and clothing ; then he granted them the 
country which is occupied by their descendants at the pres- 
ent time. 

I will add that Kien-Long caused a column to be erect- 
ed on the spot where the encounter had taken place. 
On this column we read an inscription, in very simple 
words, recording how Kien-Long saved an entire nation. 
The inscription ends with these words : " Let this place 
ever be regarded as holy." Gentlemen, I cannot be de- 
ceived in saying that you will join in this prayer of one of 
the greatest sovereigns of China. The place where a 
nation has been saved merits consecration much more than 
that where the most brilliant victory has been gained at 
the price of thousands of human lives. 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 57 

The hour passes, and I cannot enlarge upon this inter- 
esting question of migration as much as I intended. I will 
content myself with citing one example of migration by 
sea. It is still more striking, as it bears upon a race con- 
stantly referred to when it is wished to prove that men 
were born where we find them. At the present time, the 
part of the globe of which I am about to speak is one of 
those where the peopling by migration is most completely 
demonstrated. I mean Polynesia. 

It occupies a good part of the great Pacific Ocean, and 
is included in a triangle whose sides, from the Sandwich 
Islands to New Zealand and to the isle of Paques, measure, 
in round numbers, eighteen hundred leagues. The islands 
dispersed in this immense space are scarcely as much as a 
grain of sand in the Place de la Concorde. Several among 
them are smaller than Paris. The isle of Paques in partic- 
ular, which forms one of the extremities of the triangle, 
has precisely the extent of the city-wall of ancient Paris be- 
fore the annexation of the suburbs — that is to say, fifteen 
and a half miles in circumference. 

You understand what in this vast sea an isle of these 
dimensions amounts to ; and there are others much small- 
er, which are likewise peopled. The argument drawn from 
this situation would seem, then, to have great force. How 
do you suppose, says one, that savages, having no improved 
means of navigation, have been able to cross such spaces ? 
Why were they not lost in this vast ocean before finding 
these small isles ? 

Unfortunately, I cannot go into the detail of facts to 
show you how inexact is this a priori reasoning. I will 
only say that at the present time we know not only that 
the people of Polynesia came from some other place, but 
that they came from the Indian Archipelago. We know, 
besides, what has been the general course of their migra- 
tions, and can trace them on the map. Further, we have 



58 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

been able to determine the epoch when they took place, 
relying on precise documents, as positive as the charts on 
which we depend in writing the history of our middle 
ages. 

These people came from Asia, from a point of the Indian 
Archipelago that we can determine approximately. They 
reached the Marquesas Isles in the beginning of our era, or 
in the years immediately preceding. We know with still 
greater certainty that the emigration to New Zealand, that 
is to say, to the most distant portion of Polynesia, took 
place in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and that 
the emigration from New Zealand to people the Isles of 
Chatham occurred scarcely a century ago. 

Here we meet with a significant fact. When these 
emigrants established themselves in the islands of which 
we are speaking, they found them deserted. This circum- 
stance singularly facilitated their new settlement. If the 
Calmucks, of whom I just sketched the history, suffered so 
much, it is because they found men on their route. In our 
day, if it is still difficult to traverse Africa — if the journey 
from Timbuctoo has cost the lives of so many courageous 
travelers — it is because the Tuaregs close the passage to 
us. 

The more we study, the better we know that all over 
the surface of the globe man surmounts every difficulty, 
so long as he wars only against Nature. If he is arrested, 
it is when he encounters man. In brief, man alone can 
arrest man. 

I wish to say a few words also on the last of the ques- 
tions suggested by this subject. 

Man, we have seen, took his departure from a particu- 
lar place on the globe, and now he is everywhere. Con- 
sequently, in his long and multiplied journeyings, he has 
encountered climates the most extreme, and conditions of 
existence the most opposite. He has adapted himself to 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 59 

all. Does it follow that a new-comer, that a European, for 
example, can establish himself anywhere on the globe and 
immediately prosper there ? You know he cannot. He 
must become acclimated; and you can easily understand 
that it must be so. The human body, which has developed 
under certain conditions of existence, is in harmony with 
them. If they change, and above all if they change sud- 
denly, it is evident that the entire organism receives a 
shock ; and this shock brings with it suffering that, you 
know, often ends in death. 

Experience has shown that these sufferings have been 
more grave and frequent when the course of emigration 
has been from cold toward w^arm countries — whence certain 
physicians and anthropologists have drawn the conclusion 
that there are some countries on the globe that the Eu- 
ropean cannot inhabit — in which he can never prosper and 
multiply. Some have even gone further. They have main- 
tained that men could only propagate where they were 
born ; so that, in reality, the Frenchman can only live in 
France, the Englishman in England, the Dutch in Hol- 
land, etc. 

This exaggeration needs no refutation. It is already 
refuted by the existence of our colonies. We know very 
well that there are some parts of the globe where the Euro- 
pean is acclimated almost immediately; not that he can 
escape all sacrifices, but they are relatively few. I refer 
you to the case of Acadia, that country in Canada peopled 
by sixty French faniilies, and which, in a very short time, 
counted its inhabitants by thousands. I may cite you also 
to what is passing every day at the Cape, in Australia, at 
Buenos Ayres. 

You see, then, in both worlds, and under the most di- 
verse climates, Europeans prosper, multiply, and work, as 
they do in Europe. Still there are places where the ques- 
tion is much more difficult of solution, and which have been 



60 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

considered fatal to Europeans. I will name especially, on 
the western coast of Africa, our colony of Senegal, and 
above all tliat of Gaboon ; I will point out, in America, the 
Antilles generally, and consequently Guadeloupe and Mar- 
tinique ; then French Guiana. Algeria itself has been a 
subject of lively debate from this point of view. It will 
seem natural to you that I should dwell a little more upon 
this last place, because of its special interest for all of us. 

From the day of our conquest the question has been, 
whether the French could be acclimated on the soil of Al- 
geria ; and, curiously enough, friends and enemies, English- 
men and Frenchmen, military commanders and physicians, 
were almost unanimously agreed that it could not be done. 
They relied on the tables of mortality, which showed an 
excess of deaths over births. It is easy to see that a coun- 
try, where the number of those who die gains on that of 
those who are born, is fated to become depopulated, unless 
new immigrants repair the annual losses. This is what 
was said of Algeria, and it is one of the points that I have 
had to discuss in my lectures. 

Now, in spite of documents so often quoted, I do not 
hesitate to say that Frenchmen have been acclimated in 
Algeria, and have lived there very well. To arrive at this 
conclusion I have not denied the figures — the facts cited 
by those who reach the opposite one ; on the contrary^, I 
have accepted them. But I have interpreted them, resting 
on this principle, which we never abandon, namely, that, 
as regards his body, man is an animal and nothing else. 
Consequently, if the laws that govern animality bear heav- 
ily on him in certain circumstances, he profits, in return, by 
advantages that these same laws bring to animals. 

Now, before studying the acclimation of man, I began 
by studying the acclimation of plants and animals. This 
study taught me that, from the moment when an organized 
species changes its environment, be it plant, animal, or man, 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 61 

it must be ready to make two kinds of sacrifices : sacrifices 
bearing upon the individual, and sacrifices bearing upon 
the race. In Algeria, the former were shown by the figures 
of mortality of the army, which were much more consider- 
able than in France. The latter were made apparent by 
the figures of mortality of children, which, in Algeria, were 
double those of France. 

But I was aware that, when we Europeans tried to 
transplant to America certain species of domestic animals, 
the figures of mortality at first were much more consider- 
able than those of the mortality of our army; that the 
figures of the sacrifices bearing on the race were much 
higher than those of the mortality of children in Algiers. 
However, to-day, those animals are acclimated in America, 
and prosper so well that certain species have run wild, and 
are, so to speak, become indigenous. 

Relying upon these facts, I said, almost from the first 
of my lecturing. The time will come when Frenchmen will 
be acclimated in Algeria. 

The event has justified me sooner than I hoped. Pub- 
lic documents this year, containing the quinquennial cen- 
sus, show, relatively to the preceding period, an increase 
of more than twenty-five thousand souls. But, what is 
more important, they establish that this increase is almost 
entirely due to the excess of births over deaths. 

So that the sacrifices of the French in peopling Algeria 
already begin to bear fruit ; and certainly the time will 
come w^hen that country, conquered by our armies, will be, 
for the descendants of our first colonists, as salubrious as 
France is for ourselves. Then Algeria will truly be the 
France of the South. 

But the sacrifices which accompany colonization are 
none the less sad, and it is often asked if there are no 
means of diminishing them. Unhappily, this is always diffi- 
cult, often impossible. 



62 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

However, here are two facts that I ask you to reflect 
upon : 

Some of our colonies have the reputation of being par- 
ticularly unhealthy, and it is said that in them manual 
labor is impossible for Europeans. The worst of these are 
on the western coast of Africa. Now, listen to the state- 
ment of Captain Bolot, commanding a company employed 
in the construction of a pier at Great Bassam, made to 
Captain Vallon, from whom I drew the fact : " A single 
Sunday put more men in the infirmary than three days of 
work under the hot sun." This is because the Sunday was 
given, not to work, but to debauchery. 

Captain Vallon profited by the experience thus acquired. 
In his cruises to Gaboon he maintained on board his ship 
severe discipline and regular work. When not at sea, he 
made the sailors of the Dialmate work regularly in the full 
sun, but he forbade all excess, and in this way he preserved 
his own health and that of his crew. 

I will give you another and much more important ex- 
ample, as it constitutes a true comparative experience. 

It is another of the colonies I referred to as devouring 
Europeans. I mean the Isle of Bourbon, at the east of 
Madagascar, almost under the tropics — on one of the warm- 
est points of the globe. 

The tables of mortality of this island show a frightful 
excess of deaths over births. Judged alone by these tables, 
we must admit that the inferences drawn are perfectly 
justified. But these tables are true only when we take the 
population en masse. Now, the people composing it form 
naturally two parties. One includes the great proprietors, 
the great planters, the leading merchants, and all those 
who belong to them, who, so to speak, lead the life of 
colonists. It is to such, and to such alone, that the deso- 
lating figures referred to apply. 

The other part of the population is composed of people 



THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 63 

who till the ground with their hands, and who are disdain- 
fully called by the name of poor whites. These are the 
descendants of the first colonists, who were all too poor to 
buy slaves, too proud to enter into the service of others, 
and who accepted for themselves and their posterity the 
life of small farmers. This last population keeps very 
much by itself; it has multiplied, and not only become pros- 
perous, but its physical type has improved so much that 
travelers all speak of the personal beauty, both of the men 
and the women, of this race. 

So, in this same Isle of Bourbon, the rich planters, and 
the working-men in cities, perish from the life of excess 
and debauchery, for which they are too much inclined in 
the colonies. The poor whites, who devote themselves to 
the cultivation of the earth, which is said to be impossible 
for the EurojDean under the tropics, have continued to 
develop, and have gained in all respects, because they have 
joined to moderate labor a sober life and pure manners. 

Gentlemen, there is in this fact a practical lesson. Per- 
haps some among you will leave France ; perhaps you will 
go to the colonies or to Algeria to seek your fortune ! Let 
me impress upon you the history of the poor whites of the 
Isle of Bourbon — they have found that, to maintain health 
of the body, one of the best means, undoubtedly, is to pre- 
serve the health of the soul. 



LECTURE III. 



ON THE OEIGIN OF MAN. 



Gentlemen: We meet in this hall, you know, to speak 
of man. I have already given two lectures here on the 
history of our species, and intend to give several more up- 
on the same subject. You will not be surprised that the 
study of the human species, lightly as we may touch upon it, 
requires several lectures ; for it includes all organic beings. 
Although man is superior not only to plants chained to the 
soil, but to all the animals that move upon the surface of 
the globe, yet, like plants and animals, he is a living organ- 
ism. Hence he is subject to all the laws of organization 
and life. By his body he is an animal, nothing more, noth- 
ing less ; and so he must obey all the laws of animality. 
For this reason, whenever a difficult question presents it- 
self, which cannot be resolved by the direct study of man, 
we have recourse to indirect study. We then apply not 
only to the history of animals, but also to that of vegeta- 
bles, to reach conclusions concerning man himself. 

This is evidently the only scientific procedure ; we 
have followed it so far, and we shall remain true to it. 

Let us first glance at the questions already examined, 
and the answers given. 

The first occupied an entire lecture. We asked if there 
was one or several species of men. Our conclusion was, 
that the human species is single. Comparative physiology 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 65 

teaches that, in spite of the diversity presented by different 
iiuman groups, everywhere men remain men, as dogs re- 
main dogs ; as cattle remain cattle ; as horses remain 
horses; notwithstanding differences of figure, color, pro- 
portions, etc. 

This question is fundamental ; for, according to the an- 
swer given, we encounter in our path, or rather, we leave 
.on one side, a certain number of other very importai^t ques- 
tions. 

We devoted the second lecture to some of these ques- 
tions, but we studied them more briefly. 

We asked first, when man appeared on the earth. 
Guided by recent investigations, we replied to this question, 
which was till lately regarded as insoluble. We affirmed 
that man existed in France, in the neighborhood of Paris, 
at the same time with the elephant and the rhinoceros; 
and that, consequently, fossil man, whose existence was 
universally denied till within twelve or fifteen years, is a 
sure reality. 

We then asked if the human species appeared simul- 
taneously or successively on the different parts of the 
globe where it is found to-day. Always relying on the 
study of animals and vegetables, but appealing to geogra- 
phy and not to physiology, we concluded that he must have 
appeared on a single point of the globe — on a very circum- 
scribed area, an inconsiderable space of the earth's surface. 

We were able to go much further, and, w^ithout dwelling 
long on the proofs, we succeeded in determining with 
great probability the favored region where arose the human 
species, which was afterward to spread and dominate every- 
where. We showed, according to all probability, that the 
centre of human creation was toward the middle of Asia. 

As man appeared on a particular spot of the globe, and 
is to-day everywhere, having overrun the earth in all di- 
rections, he must have emigrated from his first country, 



GQ THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

and traveled to those he inhabits at the present time. 
The partisans of the plurality of the human species, the 
polygenecists, have singularly exaggerated the difficulties 
of these emigrations, and have thus sought to make an ar- 
gument against mo?io genesis. In reply we cited only the 
emigration of the Calmucks and the voyages of the Poly- 
nesians. These two examples suffice to show that emigra- 
tions, combining all the conditions that render success most 
difficult, have ended well even in our day. 

Finally, in the immense journeyings of the human race, 
from its birthplace to all the other lands it now occupies, 
it has encountered all possible conditions of existence. It 
has had to become acclimated everywhere, among polar 
colds as well as in the burning winds of the tropics. We 
established the possibility of this acclimation of the race as 
well as of its emigrations. We then showed by examples 
that the difficulty was much exaggerated, and that, if all 
acclimation in a very different climate from that before oc- 
cupied required sacrifices of individuals, and even of gen- 
erations, it is not less true that, in a certain time, races the 
most different can be acclimated and prosper in the most 
opposite climates. Algeria furnishes a near and very strik- 
ing example. But we cited others, and one of them enabled 
us to refer to a grave consideration too often overlooked — 
the influence of the moral health on the health of the 
body. 

Such, gentlemen, are the points in the history of man 
that we have already examined. 

To-day we enter upon a question put by the most un- 
cultivated tribes, as well as the most civilized peoples ; so 
profoundly does it concern the inmost nature of man. 
Whence came man? How did he come to be upon the 
earth ? How happens it that during incalculable periods 
we find no trace of him on the globe, and at other epochs 
he is everywhere ? This question, I repeat, has been pro- 



Fig. 16. 




Labt of Caieo (Egyptian). 
White Race, Aramean Branch. 



68 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

pounded in all times; it has occupied the most savage 
tribes and the most enlightened nations. It has always 
been answered in the name of dogma and religion ; but 
this is a ground absolutely denied us, and we must look 
elsewhere. 

Science has also put this question, and has tried to an- 
swer it with scientific data alone. Has it succeeded ? I 
hesitate not to answer. No, it cannot, and I think you can 
easily understand why. 

Let us distinctly state the case in all its breadth ; for, 
here, as elsewhere, we cannot separate man from the rest 
of the organized and living creation. 

The successive appearance of vegetables and animals, 
and of man, on the surface of the globe, is a fact. This is 
attested by geology. Thanks to this science, we have the 
right of affirming that at a certain epoch no organized being 
could live on the surface of the globe ; that there came a 
time when the globe could be occupied by certain vege- 
tables, by certain animals ; that it afterward passed into a 
state which permitted the appearance of birds, of mammals, 
and then of man. What has produced this succession 
of appearances ? Whence came the beings that some- 
times suddenly appear where nothing seemed to exist 
before ? 

Again I say these questions are unanswerable, at least 
at the present time. We find these organized and liv- 
ing beings existing, and, if we see them multiply, it is al- 
ways by the way of filiation. They always have a father 
and a mother. But who ever saw the first father and the 
first mother? We do not know by what process they 
were formed, or, if you like it better, what phenomena 
have preceded and accompanied their birth. The phenom- 
ena — the processes which support the existence of a soul, or 
even of a body — are very dififerent from those which pro- 
duced this soul or this body. The phenomena which led 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 69 

to the appearance of animals and vegetables were very cer- 
tainly any thing but those which sustain them. 

This proposition is perhaps a little abstract, and some 
of you may not seize it at first. Let us take an example : 

Without doubt, there are among you clock-makers, 
mechanics ; in any case, whatever you are, you handle in- 
struments of iron and steel. Well, you can understand that 
we may know perfectly the watch in our hands, may be capa- 
ble of taking it to pieces to detect the slightest defect in 
the works, of cleaning it, of combining it again, and not 
know at all where the metal came from that enters into 
its composition, nor how the wheel-work was made. Noth- 
ing in the study of the watch indicates how the metals 
composing it were taken from the earth ; how a material 
that once resembled stone was transformed into this some- 
thing we call a metal. And, unless we have been em- 
ployed in steel manufacture, we cannot know how iron is 
changed to steel, how it is made capable of receiving what 
we call temper. Consequently, the watch-maker, unless he 
has gone elsewhere for instruction, does not understand 
the manufacture of the mainspring which gives movement 
to the whole watch. 

In the case of vegetables and animals, of organized 
beings in general, we are in the same position as the watch- 
maker who knows only watch-making. We can, to be sure, 
study plants, animals, and man, from the point of view of 
anatomy and physiology, can know the organs and give an 
account of the functions, but this study does not enlighten 
us concerning the origin of these complex and marvelous 
machines. We are in the position of the watch-maker who 
knows only his watches ; and, unhappily, we have not yet 
found the school where we can go to learn the equivalent 
of what the watch-maker and mechanic can learn at the 
conservatory of arts and trades. 

I repeat, nobody has yet seen the first appearing of any 



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ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 71 

organized being whatever. Men of merit and undeniable 
good faith believe that they have produced organic beings 
complete in all their parts — microscopic vegetables, and ani- 
mals. This is called spontaneous generation. But these 
experiments have failed whenever they have been repeated 
with proper precautions to prevent the introduction of 
germs which float constantly about us. More than ever 
we can say that this is so, for over and over again the 
question has been revived, and now it has come up again 
apparently supported by irrefutable proofs, and once more 
the errors of its defenders have been made manifest. 

Let us own it, then, frankly, and without false shame ; 
we yet know nothing of the way by which organic beings 
came to exist on the surface of the globe. 

I am not afraid, gentlemen, thus to avow our incompe- 
tence. Mistrust the men who pretend to explain every 
thing : generally, they are the ones who know the least. 
You never find a true philosopher who hesitates to say, 
" I know not." At any rate, this is what I am obliged to 
say to you at this time. 

So, gentlemen, science cannot say whence came man ; 
but it can tell you whence he did not come. It is some- 
thing that it can judge, and judge with certainty, of some 
of the hypotheses that have been put forth under the guise 
of science to explain our advent upon the globe. 

These hypotheses are widely different from each other, 
but for the most part there is a general likeness among f 
them, to wit : that man is nothing but a transformed and 
pefected animal ; that he descended, by way of trans- 
formation, from animals that existed before him. In our 
day especially it is said, " Man is descended from the 
monkey." 

You see this human head, and these heads of the species 
of monkey called anthropomorphic (Fig, 17) ; that is to 
say, monkeys in human form, because in certain respects 



72 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

they approach very near us. You may yourselves judge, 
at a glance, that in all these instances, and taking account 
only of the most important part, the head, the transfor- 
mations must have been at least very considerable. 

Although this theory is reproduced to-day under diverse 
forms, it is any thing but new. For a long time men have 
wished to explain themselves by animals. We find the 
same idea even among many savage tribes. When they 
come to speak of their history, we shall find they claim to 
be descendants of bears, of beavers, etc., and some of them 
have also thought, of monkeys. Some have even seen in 
the orang a sort of brother, who preserves silence that he 
may not be compelled to work. 

Among savages, traditions wrongly interpreted, and of 
which the true sense is lost, have given rise to these ideas. 
With us it is in the name of science that the descent of 
man from an animal species has been sustained. We find 
traces of this hypothesis in Greek philosophy, but it was 
not clearly formulated till quite recently. About the mid- 
dle of the last century, in 1755, a Frenchman, De Maillet, 
published a work to show that all terrestrial and aerial ani- 
mals came from transformed marine animals. He gave, 
as the ancestors of men, the tritons of the ancient fables, 
the mermen spoken of in the legends of the middle ages, 
and seemed even to wish to establish their filiation to 
fishes. 

A little after the publication of the " Telliamed " of De 
Maillet, an Englishman, Lord Monboddo, a distinguished 
antiquary, published a curious book in many respects, on 
the origin of language, in which he attempted to show that 
civilized man is only the man of the woods (orang) per- 
fected (1774). 

In his "Zoological Philosophy " (1809), our great natu- 
ralist, Lamarck, maintained that all animals are derived 
from less complex animals by way of transformation ; and, 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 73 

especially, he tried to show how he could conceive that 
man had as ancestor some one of the highly-organized 
monkeys. It is this idea which is at the present time re- 
produced and upheld by new arguments drawn from the 
progress of science. 

At bottom, this view of the origin of our species is but 
a particular application of a more complete and general 
doctrine which has been put forth in England by a natu- 
ralist of great ability, Mr. Charles Darwin. We must, 
therefore, say something of this doctrine. I will go over it 
as rapidly as possible. 

Darwin, having to give account of the origin of species, 
supposes that originally there existed, so to speak, but a 
single organized being, which he calls an archetype. In 
consequence of the action exerted upon it by its conditions 
of existence, this type was modified more and more ; and 
these successive modifications gave birth, by way of trans- 
formation, to all the animal and vegetable species that we 
find on the surface of the globe. 

By a very simple illustration I will give you an idea of 
the way in which Darwin understands this transformation. 
Let us represent by a point the first type. For a time this 
type will give birth to beings which will more or less re- 
semble it, will have nothing that will sharply distinguish 
them one from another. We may trace a white line to 
indicate this first interval. Then at a given moment, and 
under the influence of the particular conditions of existence 
in which they find themselves placed — under the empire 
of what Darwin calls the struggle for existence and natural 
selection — the characters of these beings change little by 
little ; differences more and more marked appear and give 
rise to distinct groups that I will represent by two diverg- 
ing lifies, one red the other blue. In their turn these two 
secondary types will in the same way be more or less modi- 
fied, will give rise to new distinct groups, that we can again 



74 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

represent bj lines diverging from the preceding ones. 
These lines, more and more multiplied and diverging in all 
directions, end by forming a kind of tree in which the last 
branches represent the beings, or the groups of beings 
which are most removed from the primitive archetype. 

You will remark — and it is this which makes the theory 
of Darwin so seductive — you will remark, I say, that when 
a being has started in one direction it cannot take another. 
From the red type there can arise only secondary, tertiary, 
quaternary types, resembling more less the first parent. 
Take an example. Compare a part of our theoretic tree 
with what we see in zoological classification. A common 
type, the type of vertebrates, has given the four secondary 
types — fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals — like the main 
branch which here gives oiF four secondary branches. 

Now, in the same way that each of these branches gives 
ofi" other branches, which again subdivide and ramify, so 
each of the classes that I have just named has its particular 
types which can never pass to one of a neighboring class. 
From a fish, according to Darwin there will never spring a 
mammal and vice versa. 

Notwithstanding the device by which we have attempt- 
ed to illustrate these abstract ideas, they are still, perhaps, 
a little difiicult for some of you. I will try to make them 
plainer by a rough comparison which will serve to convey 
my thought. 

You all know that great school which is one of the glo- 
ries of France — the Polytechnic School. You know the 
pupils enter this institution on leaving the Lyceum, and af- 
ter passing an examination. Here they all receive a certain 
number of general scientific notions. Their minds are given 
one impress; they are developed and enlarged ; individual 
difi*erences of course exist ; but, upon the whole, taken en 
masse, they get the same degree of instruction, and instruc- 
tion of the same nature. On leaving the school, what hap- 



FiQ. 18. 




A Young Chinese. 
Yellow Race, Chinese Family, 



76 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

pens ? Some pursue a military career, others civil careers, 
and, once entered on these careers, they are differentiai-ed 
more and more in proportion to their progress. 

Moreover, they never swerve from the course on v^^hich 
they enter. No matter how high they rise, they will not 
pass from one career to another. The pupil of the school 
of Metz will no longer cooperate with his old classmates of 
the school of engineers. On leaving the school of Metz^ the 
officer of artillery and the officer of engineering will each 
follow his own special career. The first will be able, in 
some cases, to perform functions analogous to those of the 
civil engineer — to lay out roads and construct bridges ; but, 
for all that, he will never become engineer-in- chief. The 
Poly technician, entering the navy, may rise to the highest 
grades, he may become admiral; he will never become 
marshal of France. 

That which is true of the Poly technician in civil and 
political life, is true also of vegetables and animals in the 
matter of development, on the hypothesis of Darwin. It 
is this which makes Darwin's theory so popular, for it ex- 
plains problems constantly put by naturalists, such as the 
relations of types, the characterization of groups, the anal- 
ogies between them, the transitional types that link them 
together, etc. 

But, while recognizing the convenience of this theory of 
the English philosopher, in the interpretation of a great 
number of facts, I am obliged to reject it because it is ir- 
reconcilable with other facts ; but chiefly because it is in 
disaccord with the physiological laws of which I spoke in 
my first lecture upon the history of man. 

However, since the attempt has been made to derive 
from the Darwinian hypothesis the conclusion that man 
descended from the monkey, let us see how this pretended 
filiation agrees with the theory of which they claim it is a 
consequence. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 77 

Before a theory which makes man descend from the 
monkey can be logically deduced from the ideas of Darwin, 
it must be admitted that the human type may be derived 
from the monkey type ; that the first is, in fact, but the de- 
velopment of the second. 

Now, in spite of superficial resemblances, which early 
led to the remark that the monkey is a caricature of man, 
there are, in the general plan of the two organizations, sci- 
entifically considered, profound differences. Man walks 
about on his feet, preserving the full liberty of his arms and 
hands ; the monkey is made for climbing, and employs his 
four members for this purpose. In man, all the apparatus 
of locomotion, the feet, the legs, the thighs, the vertebral 
column, all the muscles that are attached to it, are modified 
to make an animal with two feet — a walker. In the mon- 
key, on the contrary, all these parts are arranged and com- 
bined in a way to make an animal climber ; the anterior 
members themselves, with all their dependencies, are ap- 
propriated to this purpose. 

Now, the walker and the climber are two different types ; 
to derive the one from the other is in formal opposition 
with the doctrine of Darwin. 

This fundamental difference between the human type 
and the monkey type has been long known to science as 
true of the little monkeys, that could be easily procured. 
There has been a great desire to determine if it would hold 
equally in the monkeys that approach us more nearly, called 
the anthropomorphic monkeys. Extremely profound stud- 
ies on this question have been made for many years and in 
many countries. The facilities now existing for procuring 
animals from far distant regions have enabled Mr. Richard 
Owen, the most distinguished anatomist of England, to 
make a serious study of this subject. M. Davernoy, the 
friend and colaborer with our great Cuvier, has made the 
complete anatomy of a gorilla. Later, an anatomist of whom 



78 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

we regret the premature loss, M. Gratiolet, and Dr. Alex, 
have made a not less detailed anatomy of the chimpanzee. 
These two anatomists have given particular attention to 
this question. These men, having studied the monkeys 
that most nearly approach the human type, have shown that 
the adaptation of all the parts is not for walking, but for 
climbing, so that even among anthropoid apes the charac- 
teristic fundamental monkey type is most strikingly appar- 
ent. 

So, although perfected in certain respects, the monkey 
does not change its nature. This fact agrees with the ideas 
of Darwin. Pushed to their utmost limit, faithfulness to 
these ideas leads us to say : Even when the monkey has by 
evolution become a being equal to man, this being will not 
be man. It will be a monkey as intelligent as we are, but 
it will not be a walker, it will be a climber. 

It may be said, gentlemen, as I am not a Darwinist, 
that I falsify the doctrine, and draw inexact conclusions. 
But I have had the pleasure, this very year, of seeing one 
of the most reliable Darwinists, M. Charles Vogt, and he 
expresses himself on this question exactly as I have done. 
He also admits that, according to Darwin, man and the mon- 
key could not arise from a common stock, but that the two 
types commenced to diverge, and were sharply separated 
before the appearance of the most inferior monkey ; before 
the formation of those striated monkeys of which I here 
show you a specimen. This opinion, put forth by my emi- 
nent contemporary, in a special work, and repeated in full 
anthropological congress, has double authority. As M. 
Vogt is a zoologist, an earnest anatomist, he would know, 
although a Darwinist, that man could not have descended 
from the monkey. 

Permit me to enlarge still further upon this question, and 
to show you that every thing leads to the same conclusion. 

I have just glanced rapidly at the subject of adult man 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 



79 



and of adult monkeys. Take them now when they are 
in progress of development, and see what occurs in the 



Fig. 19. 




Japanese. 

Yellow Race, Sinaic.Brancli.— Comprising the Chinese, the Japanese, and the 

Indo-Chinese Families. 



brain during the period of life passed by either of them in 
the bosom of its mother. I scarcely need to remark upon 



80 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

the importance of this study. The brain is incontestably, 
and, above all, from the point of view of development, the 
most interesting organ, whether of man or of the monkey. 
It is the seat of intelligence and of instinct. On this ac- 
count all the world attributes the highest value to the char- 
acters furnished by it. Well, how does brain development 
proceed in the monkey and in man ? Here, in a few words, 
I can show you an important fact. 

The brain, contained in its bony case, is separated into 
diverse regions. Let us consider onlj^ two, the anterior or 
frontal lobe, and the median or temporal lobe. It is evi- 
dent that in the case of animals, united by links of filiation, 
the succession of development in these two lobes ought to 
be the same. Well, between men and monkeys there is, 
in this respect, a complete difference. In man, it is the an- 
terior lobe which begins to develop first, and is most 
promptly formed, the lateral or temporal lobe coming last. 
In the monkey, on the contrary, it is the temporal lobe 
which is developed first, and the anterior lobe which is de- 
veloped afterward, so that, in the successive formation of 
the parts of this most important organ, there is a complete 
opposition. 

It is evident that two beings that develop inversely, so 
to say, cannot be derived the one from the other. 

This fact has great significance, not only by itself, but 
also in its consequences. It gives an answer to one of those 
vague assertions, too often employed by those who wish to 
establish the monkey as our ancestor. There exist human 
beings with very small skulls, and consequently with the 
brain equally reduced. Moreover, at the same time that 
the brain is diminished in volume, it is also simplified, and 
then it presents a certain resemblance to the brain of the 
anthropomorphic monkey when considered in the lump and 
without entering into details. 

There has been no want of arguments from this resem- 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 81 

blance. Some have wished to see in these facts a case of 
atavism, that is to say, a case of the reproduction of the 
characters of a very remote ancestor. It has been said that 
these individuals with rudimentary brains, which have been 
called microcephals, realize accidentally the form of brain 
of our first ancestors when they were detached from the 
family of monkeys. 

Well, the researches of M. Gratiolet, on the mode and 
the succession of development of man and the monkeys, 
have shown that this pretended resemblance does not exist 
at all.* On the contrary, precisely by reason of the different 
manner in which the development proceeds when the human 
brain is arrested in its course, it is separated still further 
from the brain of the monkey. In this case the brain of 
man may sometimes be smaller and more simple than that of 
the monkey, but it does not resemble it for all that. In a 
word, although man may seem to fall below the beast by 
the imperfection of his organ of thought, he does not be- 
come an animal anatomically. 

I understand, gentlemen, that this part of our subject is 
likely to give you some difficulty. Perhaps you have not 
always followed me step by step. However, you compre- 
hend, I think, how deep and conclusive are the arguments 
opposed to the theory that we are descended from the mon- 
keys. 

The conviction becomes still more complete, if that is. 
possible, when we examine with some care, and seriously 
compare with positive scientific data, the reasons on which 
it has been attempted to found this doctrine. We are 
then struck with the vagueness and partial verification of 
the facts or assertions almost always alleged by its parti- 
sans. Pretty much always they are reduced to simple 
possibilities. They say. Would it not be possible for the 
hand of man, by the transformation of such and such mus- 
* See Appendix G. 



82 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

cles, to come from that of the monkey ? Is it not possible 
for a monkey, by dint of standing, to end by changing his 
posterior hands into true feet ? Is it not possible that the 
same course should enable him to acquire calves, which are 
wanting in the monkey, and should have lengthened the 
bones, which are much shorter in the monkey, etc. ? 

Gentlemen, when we get upon the ground of possibility 
I know not where we shall stop. Every thing is possible 
except that which implies contradiction. Consequently we 
are no longer on the ground of science, which demands pos- 
itive, precise facts. We are living in the land of romance. 

I will add that in many cases these possibilities are op- 
posed to the facts that transpire in our day, so that the 
reasoning comes to this : " But is it not possible that 
events took place "in former times differently from those 
which happen to-day ? " Serious science, gentlemen, can- 
not accept this mode of reasoning. It does not admit 
changes in the laws which rule this world; — in those which 
touch organic beings, any more than in those which concern 
inorganic bodies. 

There is but one argument which has been worked 
out in detail in such a manner that it can be taken and dis- 
cussed point by point. It is the one drawn from a certain 
number of skulls discovered at greater or less depths in the 
soil, and which present somewhat exceptional characters. 
These skulls have been described with care and offered as 
presenting features intermediate beween the human crani- 
um and that of the monkeys. 

I can show you a model of the skull that has been most 
relied upon, and has acquired a real notoriety, under the 
name of the Neanderthal skull (Fig. 20). It was discovered 
in 1857 in the environs of Dusseldorf. This skull is chiefly 
distinguished from the human cranium by the very great 
prominence of the eyebrows. It is further characterized by 
its less height, by its length, and by some other particulars 



84 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

of which the description would take too much time. From its 
general form, and from the existence of two eyebrow swell- 
ings, it has been said that it is related to anthropomorphic 
monkeys and particularly to orangs. Gentlemen, you need 
only compare this Neanderthal skull with the crania of 
the orang and gorilla. Even at the distance where you 
are sitting, you can see that between the human head and 
the animal head there is an enormous difference, resulting 
from the volume of the cranium and consequently of the 
brain. The brain of the man to whom this cranium be- 
longed would never remind us of that of the animal whose 
head I am now holding. 

There are yet other points on which I believe I ought 
to dwell. To this Neanderthal skull has been given an 
exaggerated antiquit3\ It is said to be the most ancient 
skull that was ever found. This statement is, at least, very 
adventurous. It has been said that it resembles no other 
cranium. This is an error easily exposed. 

As to the antiquity of this famous head, it was found 
in a cavern situated on the bank of a small river where the 
soil presents no characters which enable us to fix its pre- 
cise geological age. So that to assign to this cranium an 
antiquity superior to that of the men of whom I spoke in 
a preceding lecture, an existence anterior to the men in 
France who, with stone weapons, combated the rhinoceros 
and the mammoth, is a supposition purely gratuitous. And, 
mark you, Mr. Lyell, the famous English geologist, who 
has w^ritten a volume to demonstrate the antiquity of man, 
was the first to express his serious doubts as to the age of 
this cranium. I repeat, the geological conditions in which 
it was found do not enable us to fix its precise date ; but 
nothing in the whole case authorizes us to consider the 
cavern in which it was found as more ancient than the 
geological formation which contained the bones of Auri- 
gnac or Moulin-Quignon. 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 85 

Be this as it may, the statement that this cranium re- 
sembles no other is an error (Fig. 21). From the first, when 
the designs and moulds of the Neanderthal skull spread 
over England, English anthropologists, strong partisans of 
the antiquity of man, did not hesitate to say that they had 
found in their country skulls that much resembled this one. 
Later, it was clearly demonstrated that its general form 
was no other than that of the Celtic skull. It is unwise to 
lay stress upon the frontal protuberance, on the flattening 
and elongation of the skull. Here is a smaller head which 
presents the same characters. You can even see that the 
frontal prominences, uniting at the centre, resemble still 
more that of the orang-outang than those of the Neander- 
thal skull. Now, this skull is that of an idiot who died 
some years since in a hospital of Paris. 

Finally, gentlemen, we have proofs of another nature. 
The owner of the Neanderthal skull, M. Docteur Fullrott, 
made moulds of the interior of this cranium, and it is easy 
to see that the brain of which we have here the imperfect 
reproduction is that of a man belonging without doubt to 
a savage race, but who has not less the essential human 
characters. 

Once more : M. Bruner-Bey, whose works on these ques- 
tions are of great importance, has made a cast of the in- 
terior of a cranium found in a tumulus of Poitou, and he 
shows that this mould, taken from an individual of indis- 
putable Celtic origin, adapts itself perfectly to the interior 
of the Neanderthal skull. So that it is not only in the ex- 
terior form of the head that the man of Neanderthal re- 
sembles the Celt, but also in the brain. 

The demonstration appears to me complete, and we have 
no hesitation in recognizing in the so-called pithecoide 
(relative of the monkey) a truly human cranium, and, what 
is more, a Celtic cranium. The enlarged arch of the eye- 
brows is no objection to this conclusion ; for this fact is 



86 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

reproduced in our day, as I have just shown, and as was 

also shown by examples at the congress of anthropologists. 

To sum up : the theory that man is descended from the 

monkey, by means of successive modifications, is in reality 



Tig. 21. 




An Australian Skull from Western Port, in the Museum of the Royal College of 
Surgeons, with the Contour of the Neanderthal Skull. Both reduced to one- 
third the Natural Size. 

only a brilliant fancy which has no support in precise facts ; 
in most cases it depends upon possibilities and often upon 
possibilities in flagrant opposition to facts. 

This theory, I hesitate not to say, is without support 
from any source ; but especially, and mark me well, it is in 
absolute contradiction to the theory of Darwin. 

I have dwelt upon the question because it has made 
around us a great noise. The idea of giving us the monkey 
as our ancestor is impressive, because it is new to certain 
persons, though already ancient; it is impressive by the 
species of liberty of thought that it seems to imply. Hence 



ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN. 87 

it has become as it were popular, and probably you have 
already heard it spoken of many times. Another cause of 
the notoriety it has acquired is, that it has been sustained 
in the name of philosophy and combated in the name of 
theology, reappearing consequently in the grand current of 
controversy that often carries men of good judgment away 
from the ground where they ought to stand. 

As for us, gentleman, we do not pretend to be either 
theologians or philosophers. We are exclusively men of 
science ; we have, then, to disturb us, only the truths of 
science. It is in the name of these truths that I have had 
to recognize the weakness of science, to say, Whence comes 
man ? but, in the name of scientific truth, I can affirm that 
we have had for ancestor neither a gorilla nor an orang- 
outang nor a chimpanzee ; any more than a seal or a fish 
or any other animal whatever.* 

* See Appendix H. 



LECTURE IV. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 

Gentlemen : I have already given you three lectures 
on the history of man. They have all been devoted to the 
examination of general questions, the solution of which can 
alone throw light on the study of the human races, and 
guide us in the midst of the thousands of facts of detail 
it involves. 

These three lectures constitute the first part of the 
collection of facts and ideas that I have undertaken to 
expound to you. In them, you know, I considered man in 
his relation to the universe and to the earth he inhabits. 
We found that there exists only one species of man ; that 
this species, much more ancient than was formerly believed, 
was the contemporary of the elephant and rhinoceros on 
the soil of France. Although spread everywhere at pres- 
ent, the human species, like other organic and living 
beings, had its special centre of creation. It must have 
appeared at first on a particular and circumscribed part of 
the globe, situated probably in the centre of Asia. Our 
earth, then, was peopled by migration. In the varied jour- 
neyings performed to reach all points of his domain, man 
has encountered thousands of conditions of existence. He 
has accommodated himself to them all — in other words, he 
has become acclimated everywhere. 

There is another question we had to meet, because it 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 89 

was seriously put to us, but, to answer which, we had to 
confess the insufficiency of present knowledge : it is the 
question of the first origin of man. Our answer to this 
question was founded on science alone. I have made this 
declaration many times ; I repeat it every time I speak 
before a new audience. For the most part, the problems 
we have considered are treated by theologians and philoso- 
phers. I am simply a man of science, and it is in the name 
of comparative physiology, of botanical and zoological 
geography, of geology and paleontology, in the name of the 
laws which govern man as well as animals and plants, that 
I have always spoken. 

To-day, however, I shall not need to recur, as much as in 
preceding lectures, to these terms of comparison. We have 
to commence, the study of man considered in himself; and, 
in the first place, to account in a general way for the 
modifications presented by the human type. 

These modifications constitute the characters which serve 
to distinguish divers groups of men — the different human 
races. Before studying these races in detail, we must fix 
somewhat the extent and the meaning of these characters. 

To give order even to the brief study of the characters 
of the human race, it is necessary to separate them into a 
certain number of groups. This division is easily made, 
because of the multiple nature of man, which at the same 
time connects him with the rest of creation, and gives him 
a position apart. 

Like all organic and living beings, man has a body. 
This body will furnish a first class of characters — the 
physical characters. Like animals, man is endowed with 
instinct and intelligence. Though infinitely more developed 
in him, these characters are not changed in their funda- 
mental nature. They appear in the various human groups 
in phenomena, sometimes very different, as in the case of 
the languages. The differences of manifestation of this 



90 THE NATUKAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

intelligence will constitute the second class of characters — 
the intellectual characters. 

Finally, it is established that man has two grand facul- 
ties, of which we find not even a trace among animals. 
He alone has the moral sentiment of good and of evil ; he 
alone believes in a future existence succeeding this actual 
life ; he alone believes in beings superior to himself, that 
he has never seen, and that are capable of influencing his 
life for good or evil. 

In other words, man alone is endowed with morality and 
religion. These two faculties are revealed by his acts, by 
his institutions, by facts that differ from one group to ano- 
ther, from one race to another. From these is drawn a third 
class of characters — the moral and religious characters. 

Let us attend to-day to the physical characters, to those 
furnished by the body. 

In man, as in animals, the body is made up of organs. 
We can not only study the exterior of the body, but we 
can also penetrate the interior and discover its anatomy. 
Indeed, this is the only means of finding out its most im- 
portant organs. In this study we can stop with the form, 
the arrangement, or we can go further, and seek to under- 
stand the actions of the parts, the functions they perform. 
We thus pass from anatomy to physiology. But these 
functions may be disturbed by many maladies that cannot 
be neglected, and which are the province oi pathology. , 

In our present study, we must not neglect any of these 
orders of facts. You see how we are led to draw, from the 
body alone, four categories of characters, namely : I. Ex- 
terior characters ; II. Anatomic characters ; III. Physiologi- 
cal characters ; IV. Pathological characters. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. 
I. Exterior Characters. — When we see men or ani- 
mals, the first thing that strikes us is their size. Our do- 



PHYSICAL CHAKACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 91 

mestic species are made of great and small races, and it is 
the same with man. 

The extreme dimensions of the human form, whether 
great or small, have been very much exaggerated. Every- 
where there has been a belief in the existence of races of 

Fig. 22. 




Patagoniax. . 
Eed Eace, Souttiern Brancli, Pampean Family. 



dwarfs and races of giants. For instance, the Greeks be- 
lieved in the existence of a people, called by them pigmies, 
whose country they placed sometimes in one direction, 
sometimes in another, but always beyond the limits of the 
world they truly knew. These were little men about four- 



92 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

teen inches in height, who, it was believed, were obliged to 
pluck down the corn with strokes of the axe, and who 
passed a part of their time defending themselves against 
the cranes. In the last century this fable of the pigmies 
was, so to speak, renewed and applied to the kymos, who 
were said to inhabit Madagascar. It is needless to add 
that, since we have seen them more closely, pigmies and 
kymos have disappeared. 

The fables relative to giants are the contrary of the 
preceding. Among these fables there are some modern 
ones, for a time believed to be founded on real observation. 
The first voyagers who doubled Cape Horn found there the 
Patagonians, whose dimensions they singularly exagger- 
ated. Pigafetta, the companion of Magellan in the first 
voj^age around the world (1520), pretended that he and his 
companions scarcely reached to the height of their waists. 
One of his successors, Jofre Loaysa, with still greater ex- 
travagance, declared that the heads of the Christians reached 
only to the upper part of their thighs. This was, j^ou see, 
to attribute to these people a height of thirteen to sixteen 
feet. 

Time and science have done justice to these fables and 
exaggerations. Let us see what are in reality the extremes 
presented by the human stature. 

It is plain that in this research we must leave out ex- 
ceptional individuals, of which we see a certain number in 
the fairs and museums, or anywhere, for money. It is a 
question neither of General Tom Thumb, whom you have 
perhaps met sometimes in the Champs Elys^es, nor of the 
French or Chinese giants, recently exhibited in Paris. I 
will only remark, in passing, that these individual excep- 
tions appear among all nations, although more rarely, per- 
haps, in the midst of savage populations. 

The smallest known race is that .of the Bushman, which 
inhabits the southern part of Africa ; the greatest is the 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 93 

Patagonian, of which we just named the country. An 
English traveller, Barrow, naeasured all the inhabitants 
of a tribe of the first ; a French traveller, Alcide d'Orbigny, 
took the exact measure of a great number of individuals 
belonging to the second of these two extreme races. 

It results from these measurements that the mean height 
of the Bushman is four feet three and one half inches, and 
that of the Patagonian five feet eight inches. The mean 
difi'erence between the greatest and the smallest human 
race is then sixteen and one-half inches. 

The smallest Bushman measured by Barrow was a wom- 
an who was only three feet ten and one-half inches. The 
largest Patagonian measured by D'Orbigny attained six 
feet three inches. The greatest difference existing, then, 
between normal human individuals is two feet eight and 
one-half inches. The ratio between the extremes of height 
just named is nearly as 1 to 0.6. These figures signify 
much and lead to important consequences. 

First, the difference in size among our domestic animals 
is much greater than that above indicated. From the 
great dogs that promenade in our court-yards, down to cer- 
tain dogs which have figured at dog-shows, the ratio is 1 to 
0.3. The difference is also as great between the large 
brewers' horses of London and horses from Shetland, which 
are sometimes not larger than a Newfoundland dog. These 
horses and these dogs are, however, only different races of 
a single species. One cannot reason, then, from differ- 
ences of height to sustain the multiplicity of human 
species. 

There is another consideration not less important : 

From all the data I can gather, it results that the mean 
stature of men, the world over, is about five feet three 
inches. But this mean, like that given above, results 
from very numerous and very diverse heights. If in 
thought we place all men in one line according to their 



94 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

height, it is easy to see that we should obtain a series in 
which the difference from one to the next will not be, per- 
haps, the -g^-^oT^^ ^^ ^^ inch. 

But this is not all. In this graduated series, the men 
of the same race will be far from being placed together. 
There will be in this respect the strangest mixture. All 
the Patagonians are not nearly six feet three inches in 
height, nor all the Bushmen as short as three feet ten and 
a half inches. Among our cuirassiers and the hundred 
guards of the emperor many individuals would be found 
with the first ; the Lapps of the north of Europe and the 
Mincopees of the isles of Andaman in the Gulf of Bengal 
would mix with the second. 

Now, in no other kind of animal, with numerous species 
and of limited growth, is there any thing parallel. The 
domestic races alone present something like its analogue. 
So that, by themselves, these considerations drawn from 
the height furnish excellent proof of the unity of the hu- 
man species. 

The study of proportions would show us like facts and 
conduct to similar conclusions. But I leave considerations 
of this kind, to pass to other characters almost as striking 
as those of height. I wish to speak of those drawn from 
the complexion, and first of all from the color of the skin. 
The general coloration of the body is a well-defined charac- 
ter ; but we need not exaggerate its value. 

If you observe several portraits representing individuals 
of the white race, you may see that their tint is sometimes 
as dark as that of the Guinea negro. In the portrait of 
Rammohun-Roy, the celebrated Brahman reformer, the fine- 
ness and regularity of his profile attest that he is of the 
purest Aryan blood, and his color is that of a negro just a 
little blanched. Again, there are Abyssinians whose fea- 
tures recall the fine Semitic type, and yist few negroes sur- 
pass them in blackness. So all black men are not negroes. 



Fig. 23. 




A Fellah Woman and Children (Egyptian). 
White Race, Aramean Branch, Libyan Family. 
5 



96 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

Reciprocally, Livingstone has found in the centre of Africa 
negroes of the color of cafe au lait. 

The color of the human race varies from white, such as 
i^seen in Dutch and Danish women, to violet or yellow, to 
yellow-citron or smoke, to copper-red or brick. By ap- 
pealing to your recollections, you can establish a series 
passing from light to dark by insensible shades such as 
could scarcely be reproduced upon the palette of a painter. 

Recollect that some of these extremes of color are fre- 
quent among domestic animals, and are sometimes much 
greater. With black hens, it is not the skin alone that is 
colored. All the great interior membranes, the sheaths 
of the muscles, the aponeuroses, as well as the flesh of the 
wings, present an aspect very little appetizing. So it is 
sought to weed them out of the poultrj^-yard ; and still in 
certain parts of the globe they are constantly produced and 
would evidently soon become a race if left to multiply. 
Here, again, in the case of animals, the difference from 
race to race is much greater than in the case of man. 

Sometimes, in the presence of variations of color like 
these we have described, we ask if, between the negro and 
the white, there do not exist anatomical differences in the 
skin ? The minute study of this organ answers us in the 
negative. 

The skin is composed of three layers, which together 
constitute a true organ having its proper functions. So it 
is often called the cutaneous organ. On the exterior is 
the epidermis, that dry and insensible layer which covers 
the entire body, and protects it against the action of outer 
agents. 

Interiorly, and immediately above the fatty layer, is the 
true akin — it is the essential and living part of the cutane- 
ous organ ; it is this which receives the blood-vessels and 
nerves. 

Between the true skin and the epidermis is a dark lay- 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 97 

er, composed of distinct cells. It is the mucous membrane 
of Malpighi, so named from the anatomist who first de- 
scribed it. The cells that form it are a simple secretion of 
the true skin. It is this layer which is the seat of color. 
It exists in all men, but the cells that it contains are more 
or less colored according to race. In whites themselves, in 
certain parts of the body, around the nipples, in the specks 
of freckles, in the beauty-spots, etc., we sometimes see them 
as deep as in the negro. 

You see that the color in different human races is, when 
developed, only a phenomenon of local coloration, of ex- 
actly the same nature as that encountered in races of do- 
mestic animals. If time permitted me to enter more fully 
into the subject, I could make this fact much more evident, 
but the hour advances and I must hasten. 

To the skin are attached a certain number of organs 
which may be considered as adjuncts. These are chiefly 
the villosities or hairs, the sebaceous glands, and the sweat- 
glands. Between these annexed organs, there exists a 
certain balance which physiology easily explains. So in 
glabrous races, that is, races with little or no villosities on 
the body, the sebaceous apparatus is much more developed. 
This fact is very marked in the African negro, whose skin 
sometimes bears slight prominences, sketching a sort of 
arabesque by the extraordinary development of these little 
organs. 

It is to the development of the sebaceous apparatus 
that the odor of the negro is due. This odor is so strong, 
so persistent, that it suffices to the identification of a negro- 
ship a long time after it has left the trade. But it is not 
negroes alone that are characterized by malodorous exha- 
lations. It is the same with the whites themselves. You 
all know that a dog follows his master by the scent. 
Savage people, whose senses are more exercised than 
ours, distinguish very quickly the general odor which char- 



98 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 



acterizes a race ; and, in Peru, they give special names to 
that of the white and of the black as well as to their own. 



Fig. 24. 




Oblong and Prognathous S^^^^ffh^mtSl'sfif ^""^ Front Views, one-third 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 99 

As to the hair which may be seen on different parts 
of the body, a special mention is due to that of the head. 
All people have more or less hair on the head, and this 
gives also very good characters. Among these the most 
essential are drawn from the form presented by the trans- 
verse cut when examined under the microscope. In the 
yellow people, the Americans and the white allophyles, this 
cut is more or less circular. In the Aryans, of which we 
are a part, it is oval ; in the negroes it takes the form of an 
elongated ellipse. It is evident that a circular cut indicates 
a cylindrical hair. Such hair is very coarse and stiff, and 
never curling or frizzled ; an oval cut indicates a slight 
and regular flattening. In this form the hairs are finer, 
and may be made into curls or waves more or less marked. 
Finally, the elliptical cut can only appear when the hair is 
much flattened, almost hke a thick ribbon. These are the 
finest, and these alone have the aspect of wool which 
characterizes the head of the negro. 

Crosses between these different races sometimes produce 
very remarkable heads of hair. The negro crossed with 
the Brazilian produces the Cafuso, whose hair, forming an 
immense wig, is at the same time long, stiff, and kinked. 

I would further enlarge upon these exterior characters, 
as being the ones of which we can most easily give account, 
but time fails me, and I pass to the second class of physical 
characters, to those which we must seek in the interior. 

II. Anatomic Ohaeactees. — The anatomic characters 
may be drawn from the solid parts of the body, that is, the 
skeleton, from the soft parts, and even from the liquids. 
I shall at first confine myself particularly to those displayed 
by the head. 

In the head itself we must distinguish the cranium from 
the face. The first incloses the brain, whence proceed the 
organs of sense, with the exception of those of touch, prop- 



100 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

erly speaking. Above all, it is the seat of intelligence ; 
on these various accounts it merits a separate examination. 

The general form of the cranium, that is, the relation be- 
tween the longitudinal and transverse diameters, furnishes 
an excellent character. When this relation is less than 
that of 100 to 78, the cranium is considered as elongated 
from front to back : it is dolichocephalic. When the rela- 
tion varies from 100 to 78 or 80, the cranium is medium or 
average ; we say it is mesocephalic. Finally, when the 
relation is from 100 to 80, and above, the cranium is con- 
sidered short, and is said to be hr achy cephalic. 

These forms sometimes characterize very large human 
groups. So almost all the negroes are dolichocephalic; 
nearly all the yellow people, and most of the Americans, 
are brachycephalic or mesocephalic. Among the whites, 
and even sometimes in two populations belonging to the 
same branch of the white race, we find the two extremes. 
The Germans of the north are dolichocephalic, the Germans 
of the south brachj^cephalic. 

While recognizing the importance of the characters 
drawn from these general forms, we must guard ourselves 
against exaggerating their import or giving them a wrong 
signification. Some authors, belonging to the dolichocephalic 
races, have pretended that the elongation of the head behind 
is a sign of intellectual superiority. The fact I have just 
stated suffices to refute this conclusion, and nothing justifies 
it. The Germans of the south are noways inferior to their 
countrymen of the north. In the Academy of Sciences 
in Paris, the brachycephalic crania, or at most the mesoce- 
phalic, are in very great majority ; and still, what associa- 
tion of men is superior, in an intellectual point of view, to 
this philosophical body ? 

Analogous indications have been drawn from the 
greater or less capacity of the cranium. It has been sup- 
posed that this exactly corresponded in measure to the 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 101 

volume of the brain, and this volume has been regarded as 
a sort of measure of intellectual power. 

That there is some truth at the bottom of the idea that 
a brain sufficiently developed is necessary to give the power 
to fulfill its functions, is what all the world admits. But 
that intellectual power is measured by the quantity of 
cerebral matter entering into the composition of the organ 
is in contradiction to the observations and the figures of 
many anatomists, among others, of R. Wagner. 

In considerations of this nature we do not generally take 
account of the stature. Now, although the head does not 
enlarge in the same proportion as the rest of the body, it is 
not the less true that the body influences its dimensions. 

Besides, with organized and living beings, the volume, 
the mass of organs, is not all. Their special energy is 
much more. Certainly you all know small persons, of 
slender aspect, who are more active and strong than some 
of their comrades who are larger and more muscular. 
Well, how is it that what is true of flesh, of muscle, is not 
also true of brain ? 

After the cranium we come to the face. But I will 
only speak of a single order of characters drawn from the 
jaws and teeth. 

Observe a negro, and a European. Look at the jaws 
and teeth of the first. You see them project in front. In 
the second, on the contrary, teeth and jaws are equally 
vertical. The first of these is called prognathism (Fig. 24), 
and the peoples or individuals who present them are said 
to be prognathous; the second (Fig. 25) takes the name 
of orthognathism and characterizes the orthognathous races 
or individuals. 

Prognathism has long been considered as characterizing 
the negro races. Since, we have found it in people who 
could not be affiliated with the negro ; and, finally, looking 
closely into the matter, we have found it in the heart of 



Fig. 25. 




Side aad Front Views of the Eound and Orthognathous Skull of a Calmuck, 
after Von Baer. Oue-third the Natural Size. 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 103 

white populations. At Paris, even, it is frequent enough, 
particularly among women. This is a fact of which you 
can convince yourself, as I have often done during my 
rides in the omnibus. 

Judging by the crania that we possess, prognathism is 
characteristic of a population incontestably European which 
lives at the south of the Baltic, the Esthonians. This peo- 
ple is, furthermore, the remains of the most ancient race of 
Western Europe. It is this race, without doubt, Avhich, 
mixing its blood with new-comers, has left in the midst of 
our great cities those indications of a prognathous race to 
which I have just referred. 

After studying the cranium and face separately, we must 
examine the head in its ensemble. From this, also, we draw 
important characters. I will only mention one, which has 
a certain real value, but the signification of which some 
have exaggerated and falsified. 

Camper, an anatomist of Holland, studied comparatively 
the Greek and Roman medallions and statues, and, struck 
with the air of majesty presented by the Greeks, gave for 
a reason that the facial angle was greater than in the Ro- 
mans (Fig. 26). This angle is formed by two lines which 
meet at the extremity of the front teeth, and of which one 
passes by the middle of the orifice of the ear, while the 
second is tangent to the forehead. 

Pushing these researches much further. Camper believed 
that he discovered a regular decrease of the facial angle in 
the human race. Going further, and applying it to animals, 
he placed in a descending scale, man, monkeys, carnivora, 
birds, all characterized by smaller and smaller angles. 
Whence, to conclude that the facial angle measures, so to 
say, the intelligence, is but a step, which was taken with- 
out hesitation. 

As this conclusion gives great interest to the measure- 
ment of the facial angle, many processes and many instru- 



104 THE NATUKAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

ments have been proposed to obtain it with all possible ex- 
actitude. The goyiiometer, invented by my assistant M. 
Docteur Jacquart, attained this end better than any other. 

Jacquart did not stop with making this instrument. He 
used it ; and, in a beautiful work, he shows among other 
things that the right angle exists in the white race, contrary 
to what Camper believed; that we do observe it, in intelli- 
gent persons, who are, however, not sensibily superior to 
others with a lesser angle. The facial angle cannot, then, 
be considered as measuring the intelligence, the reach of 
the mind. 

M. Jacquart shows, besides, that, in the population of 
Paris, the angular diflPerences of which we are speaking are 
much more considerable than those that Camper regarded 
as characterizing races. He shows that here, again, there 
is from race to race that entanglement of traits which I have 
so many times pointed out. Yet here, as elsewhere, the 
average furnishes good characters to determine human 
groups. 

Again, the skeleton presents important characters. 
We ought, at least, to examine the breast, the pelvis, the 
bones of the limbs, etc. ; but we must leave this subject, to 
say a word on the soft parts. 

Regarded in the two extremes of humanity, the white 
European and the negro, the nervous system presents a fact 
which it is important to point out. With the first, the 
nervous centres — the brain and spinal cord — are relatively 
more voluminous. In the second, on the contrary, it is the 
expansions from the centres — the nerves — which are more 
voluminous. 

The circulatory apparatus presents a balance some- 
what analogous. With the white, the arterial apparatus, 
which carries the blood to the organs, is relatively more 
developed than the venous apparatus that draws the blood 
toward the heart. 



Fm. 26. 




Greeks of Athens. 
White Race, European Branch, Greek Family. 



106 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

The blood of the negro, studied in his native country, is 
more viscous and darker colored than that of the white. 
That of the creole negro of New Orleans is, on the contrary, 
paler and more aqueous, and recalls the blood of the anaem- 
ic. So, a simple change of habitat sometimes modifies a 
human race in this most profound character — in this liquid 
pabulum destined to penetrate and nourish all parts of the 
body. 

III. Physiological Characters. — I shall dwell briefly 
on the physiological characters, and only point out two 
general facts, of which you will easily see the importance. 

As regards all the great periods of life and all the great 
functions, there is a nearly complete identity among all men, 
to whatever race they belong. 

When this resemblance is not apparent, the cause is not 
in the nature of the races, but in the influence of conditions 
of existence. This is well proved by the fact that races the 
most widely separated resemble each other completely 
when they are exposed to identical conditions through a 
change of habitat. So, the precocity of the negro has been 
cited as distinguishing this race from European nations ; 
but, when white people live for generations in hot countries, 
they take on the same peculiarity. The negress and the 
English Creole of the isles of the Gulf of Mexico are just 
alike in precocity. 

On the contrary, the study of secondary functions shows 
that they vary from one group to another, and sometimes 
very widely. But, then, also, we see that the environment, 
the manners, the habits, etc., are the cause of these vari- 
ations ; and, again, we see races the most unlike come to 
resemble each other so much as to be confounded. There 
are hunters of English and French descent who have their 
senses of sight and hearing as quick and sharp as the.red- 
skins. 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 107 

In conclusion, the study of physiological characters 
strongly attests the fundamental unity of the human race, 
b}^ throwing light on the marvelous flexibility of our organ- 



FiG. 2T. 



^^^^"^^■^"^ 




Indian op the Mexican Coast (Aztecs). 
Red Eace, Northern Branch, Southern Family. 



IV. Pathological Characters. — The study of dis- 
eases presents entirely similar facts, and conducts to the 
same conclusions. 

All the human races are accessible to the same diseases. 
If any circumstances — isolation, for instance — have pre- 
served some one of them from affections common to the 
others, a simple coming together suffices for the propaga- 
tion of the disease. The eruptive maladies seem to have 
been implanted in America by the Europeans ; but, once 
implanted among the indigenous races, they have raged 



108 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

with a violence unknown to us — a violence which is ac- 
counted for by the kind of life led by these people. 

Yet immunities, at least relative, have been proved. 
For instance, the negro race is much less sensible to the 
emanations of marshes, to the miasms from stagnant wa- 
ters, than the white race. On the other hand, it is much 
more easily affected by phthisis. 

Other more complete immunities have been observed, 
and some have even wished, in consequence, to justify the 
admission of a distinct human species. But these immuni- 
ties, even the best marked, disappear with time, especially 
under the influence of conditions of existence. I will give 
you a curious example : 

Elephantiasis is a hideous malady, peculiar to certain 
warm countries, which swells and deforms, sometimes in 
the strangest way, the parts of the body it attacks. In 
one of the Antilles, in Barbadoes, this disease was seen 
from the first among the negroes, but had constantly spared 
the whites till 1704. That year a white person was seized, 
and since then the malady has extended in this race; but 
it never attacks any but Creoles. Up to the present time, 
Europeans, who settle in this isle, enjoy the ancient im- 
munity. You see it is only a question of complete accli- 
mation. 

Gentlemen, I believe I have sketched, in this one lecture, 
a body of facts and ideas which, at the museum, occupied 
at least ten lectures, each as long as this to-day. So, you 
see how many things I have been compelled to omit. In- 
complete as is this presentation, it is sufficient, I think, to 
establish clearly some general facts, and prepares the way 
for an important conclusion. 

You have seen that, considering man from the point of 
view of his height and color, we may form a graduated 
series which passes from one extreme to the other by 
insensible gradations. You have seen further that, in this 



PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE HUMAN RACES. 109 

series, groups the most distinct by other characters — the 
most separated by their habitat — are found intermixed. 

Permit me to add that we should get the same result, 
whatever the exterior or anatomical character upon which 
we establish our series. , 

The study of functions, whether performed in a normal 
manner, in a state of health, or under the perturbing in- 
fluence of disease, shows us identical fundamental facts 
revealing the unity of human nature. 

Even apparent exceptions come under the general facts 
when we take account of the influence of the environment 
which, as you have seen, efi"aces some of the most marked 
difi"erences. 

In this examination of the physical man, every thing 
leads to the conclusion which we had already reached in 
our earlier lectures ; and we can repeat with redoubled 
certainty : the diff'erences among human groups are char- 
acters of race, and not of species ; there exists only one 
human species ; and, consequently, all men are brothers — 
all ought to be treated as such, whatever the origin, the 
blood, the color, the race. 

Gentlemen, the lectures I have given here require a 
special preparation, and are not always easy to prepare ; 
but I shall not regret either my time or my pains, if I am 
able, in the name of science, and that alone, to render a 
little more clear and precise for you this great and sacred 
notion of the brotherhood of man. 



LECTURE V. 

INTELLECTUAL AND MOEAL CHARACTEES OF THE HUMAN 
RACE. 

Gentlemen : I resume my discourse for the fifth time 
on the same subject. You have already, on four different 
occasions, studied man ; and, again, man is the subject of 
this lecture. 

On the preceding occasions I ran over some of the 
general questions that arise concerning the history of the 
human race. Depending always and exclusively upon sci- 
ence, I have shown that this species is unique ; that all 
men are of the same species ; and that, in consequence of 
this fact, they ought to regard each other as brothers, what- 
ever the color of the skin, whatever language they speak, 
whatever country they inhabit. 

- This species at first occupied a very limited part of the 
earth. It spread all over the globe at an earlier epoch 
than was formerly believed ; more recent researches have 
demonstrated that man existed in France along with the 
hyena, the elephant, the rhinoceros — that is to say, along 
with animals seen, in our day, only in distant countries. 

As man appeared at first on a restricted point of the 
globe, and is found to-day everywhere, it is evident that he 
has traveled in all directions from his centre of creation^ 
and peopled the earth by migration much as do the Euro- 
peans at the present time. These journeyings have exposed 
him to all the influences which can be encountered on the 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. m 

surface of our planet, and he has become acclimated every- 
where as we see him to-day. 

In the study of general questions relative to the history 
of our species, we had to ask what was the origin of man. 

On this point I have been obliged to confess the insuffi- 
ciency of actua^l knowledge. But, if I was not able to say 
whence man came, I could say, in the name of science, 
whence he did not come; I could affirm that our ancestor 
was not an animal — neither a monkey, nor a seal, nor any 
other animal whatever. 

At our last meeting we commenced the study of the 
general characters presented by the human species, and we 
examined its physical characters ; that is, those which may 
be drawn from the body studied in a state of health and of 
disease. We were led also to pass in review its exterior 
characters, its anatomic characters, physiological and path- 
ological. We thus obtained an idea of the general nature 
of man, considered exclusively from an organic point of 
view. Well, this study of man, in his material relations, led 
us to the conclusion that there is but one human species, 
so that it confirmed the results at which we arrived in our 
first lectures. 

But is the body all of man ? And, after studying the 
material being that strikes our senses, is there nothing more 
to study ? Science will answer. 

When a naturalist studies ants, he is not content with 
describing the thorax, the abdomen, the jaws and the legs. 
He shows also how they construct their ant-hill, and to 
what use its chambers are destined ; its galleries, where 
so many and such divers things are stored ; he shows 
further, how they raise their larvae and their young ones ; 
how they hold in captivity the plant-lice destined to furnish 
an aliment which they secrete, as do the cows and sheep we 
keep in our stables. 

When a naturalist gives the history of bees, he does not 



112 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

limit himself to a description of their body and wings ; he 
is careful to show how they build their hives, gather and 
knead the wax to construct the comb in which they deposit 
honey, the first sweet known to man. He calls the atten- 
tion of the reader or listener to that unique female, always 
alone in each hive ; he shows the respect and care that all 
the bee-workers have for this female, who is at once their 
queen and their mother. 

In other words, the naturalist studies the instincts of 
the ants and the bees. 

When he attempts the history of man, shall he put aside 
that which in him represents these instincts ? Evidently 
not. 

Consequently he must not stop with the body. He 
must consider the intelligence which is in us, and which, up 
to a certain point, we have in common with animals ; he 
must show that it is this element of our being which recog- 
nizes the outer world, which judges, which aspires. His 
work will be very imperfect, if he neglects this something 
of which the nature escapes us, but of which the power is 
such, that through it man has not only vanquished all ani- 
mals, whatever their defenses, their size, or their strength, 
but he has overcome and made to work, as his servants, 
even the immutable forces of the inanimate world, achiev- 
ing all distances, thanks to the railroad ! outstripping time, 
thanks to the telegraph ! and even annihilating pain, thanks 
to chloroform ! 

Then, along with the material characters which we stud- 
ied at our last lecture, we now take up intellectual char- 
acters. 

It is our distinct intention, in taking up characters of a 
nature so new, still to remain exclusively on the ground of 
science. 

We know the existence of faculties, and we shall point 
out their most general manifestations ; but we shall have 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 113 

no concern with the nature of these faculties. In a word, 
we are not philosophers. Here, as in preceding lectures, 
we shall remain a man of science — a naturalist, and noth- 
ing else. 

It will be impossible for me to examine these characters 
in detail. I shall neglect several, and limit myself to say- 
ing something on language, on writing, on the fundamen- 
tal forms of society, on industry, and on dress. 

I. Language. — It will not be denied that the most es- 
sential of all the manifestations of intelligence is language. 

" Animals have voice, man alone has speech." This 
phrase is from an ancient philosophic naturalist — from the 
great Aristotle, who lived some four centuries before our 
era ; it is as true to-day as it was more than two thousand 
years ago. In fact, man alone possesses articulate speech. 

But, you all know that the manifestations of speech 
vary from people to people. Each of these manifestations 
— the languages, as we call them — constitutes one of the 
most essential characters of the different human groups. 
You all know a German, a Spaniard, an Englishman, by 
his language. But this is not the limit of the scientific im- 
portance of this character. Unhappily, I cannot here enter 
into details. I shall only attempt to show you, in a few 
words, how the study of language throws light on the 
history of human groups, even in the case of those who 
have lost all historic data. 

You know that in France other languages than French 
are spoken, and that, on all sides of us, we find the Gascon 
in the south, the bas-Breton in Brittany, the Alsatian in 
Alsace, etc. Whence comes this diversity of language 
among a people at present so remarkably homogeneous ? 

History answers this question. It teaches us that, until 
a certain epoch, Languedoc, Alsace, Brittany, formed so 
many sepa,rate states, having each its own language. From 
this fact we are enabled to draw important consequences. 



114 THE NATUKAL HISTOEY OF MAN. 

When we encounter a group actually designated by a 
single name, and when we find in this group secondary 
groups speaking diverse languages, we may almost to a 
certainty conclude that formerly all these secondary groups 
had their individual life, their political independence. 

The study of language conducts us still further. 

When, in place of mere juxtaposition, each remaining 
in the place it has occupied for an indefinite time, the dif- 
ferent nations, from any cause whatever, come to be mixed 
together, they each bring their language ; and, in conse- 
quence of the fusion, each brings his part of the language, 
that becomes common. A language so formed is a mixed 
language, which consists of words and turns of phrases re- 
calling the mother-languages which gave it birth. 

Here, again, history shows us that this thing has actu- 
ally been done. The English language, for example, has 
words and expressions which bring to mind the languages 
of all the races that have been mixed and confounded in 
that island. 

Consequently, when we enter for the first time a country 
of which we know not the history, and find a population 
presenting in its language words and phrases borrowed 
from other languages, on the right and on the left, we are 
authorized to conclude that this population results from the 
mixture of anthropological elements, which imply the lin- 
guistic elements themselves. 

We may go still further. 

Language, you know, changes — is transformed with 
time. The French language of our day is not the French 
of five centuries ago ; the Frenchman of to-day must study 
specially and with dictionaries before he can read the French 
of the past. 

So, language changes, even when there has been no 
displacement of population. And all the more when im- 
migration intervenes; if mixtures occur, the language will 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 115 

be altered, and a new language will arise. This new lan- 
guage may differ so much from the primitive one as to 
appear at first to have no resemblance to it. This may 
happen not only for one people and for one language, 
but for many. A language may also become the mother 
of many different languages. But these daughter lan- 
guages always preserve something in common with that 
from which they descended ; and men who have made these 
questions the object of continued study, the linguists, 
know very well how to discover the filiation. They know 
how to rise from derivative languages to their primitive 
tongues. In this way they attach together people that 
were thought to be very distinct because they spoke lan- 
guages that at first seemed very different. 

It is by this study, wholly recent, but which for some 
years has advanced with the stride of a giant, that we are 
able to. unite in one source most of the people who now 
cover almost the whole of Europe ; such as, on the one 
hand, the French, the Germans, the Swedes, and the Span- 
iards ; and, on the other, the people who inhabit Persia 
and the valley of the Ganges. These people constitute 
what is called the Aryan race. 

More marvelous still, thanks to the comparison of lan- 
guages, a philosopher of Geneva, M. Adolph Pictet, was 
able to trace a sort of history of the primitive Aryans, the 
common parents of Europeans, Persians, and Indians. He 
retraced their manner of life, and, although they left no 
historical data, he has shown almost in detail the point of 
civilization at which they had arrived. 

I cannot, you know, enter into details relative to this 
science, at once so recent and already so immense that it 
has been called comparative linguistic science. I can only 
indicate the great divisions, because, perhaps I shall, by- 
and-by, have to refer to them. 

All the languages spoken on the surface of the earth 



116 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

have been divided into three fundamental groups ; these 
are the monosyllahic languages, the agglutinative lan- 
guages^ and the flexible languages. 

The monosyllabic languages are the most imperfect. 
Each of their words consists of one syllable. As an exam- 
ple, I will name the Chinese, which is a monosjdlabic lan- 
guage, par excellence. In this language each word presents 
itself with a sense perfectly absolute, and the delicacies of 
our language, even the distinctions of time, of place, of 
going, of coming, etc., can be translated only by a kind of 
paraphrase. 

The agglutinative tongues form the second stage of lan- 
guage ; here there are words, placed after the fundamental 
conception, which serve to modify the primitive sense — 
roots, to employ the expression in use. As examples of 
agglutinative languages, I will name the negro languages, 
and those spoken by yellow people, and also by very small 
numbers of white people. 

Finalh^, the highest development of language is that of 
flexible language, so named because, by simple changes in 
the termination of a word, we can change and modify the 
absolute sense, and make it express divers shades of mean- 
ing, thus : je parle {I speak) now ; je parlerai {J shall 
speak) to-morrow. Almost all the white races speak flexi- 
ble languages. 

II. Writing. — Speech is evidently the first element in 
the formation of societies ; writing is the most essential 
element of the progress of these societies. It is speech 
fixed. This alone permits the transmission of the results 
of our efforts to the most distant descendants — of the accu- 
mulation of the treasures that each generation has sepa- 
rately acquired. I should like to dvvell upon its history ; 
but I should be drawn too far, and so, for writing as for 
language, I can only indicate a few facts. 

Almost with the lowest savages we find means to aid 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 



117 



the memory, and serve as souvenirs of events to which more 
or less importance is attached. These are called mnemoniG 
signs. They are sometimes stones, sometimes pieces of 

Fig. 29 



Fig. 28. 








Indian Bakk-lettee. 



Indian Bark-letter. 

Explanation of Fig. 28.— On one occasion a party of explorers, with two In- 
dian guides, saw one morning, just as they were about to start, a pole stuck 
in the direction they were going, and holding at the top a piece of hark, 
covered with drawings, which were intended for the information of any 
other Indians who might pass that way. This is represented in Fig. 28. No. 
1 represents the subaltern officer in command of the party. He is drawn 
with a sword, to denote his rank. No. 2 denotes the secretary. He is repre- 
sented as holding a book, the Indians having understood him to be an at- 
torney. No. 3 represents the seologist, appl'opr lately indicated by a ham- 
mer. Nos. 4 and 5 are attaches ; No. 6 the interpreter. The group of figures 
marked 9 represents seven infantry soldiers, each of whom, as shown in 
group No. 10. was armed with a musket. No. 15 denotes that they had a 
separate fire, and constituted a separate mess. Nos. 7 and 8 represent the 
two Chippewa guides. These are the only human figures drawn without 
the distinguishing symbol of a hat. This was the characteristic seized on 
by them, and generally employed by the Indians, to distinguish the red from 
the white race. Nos. 11 and 12 represent a prairie hen and a green tortoise, 
which constituted the sum of the preceding day's chase, and were eaten 
at the encampment. The inclination of the pole was designed to show the 
course puresued; and there were three hacks in it below the scroll of bark, 
to indicate the estimated length of this part of the journey, computing from 
water to water. 

Explanation of Fig. 29. — This figure gives the biography of Wingemund, a 
noted^ief of the Delawares. No. 1' shows that he belonged to the oldest 
branch of the tribe, which had the tortoise on their symbol. No. 2 is his 
totem^ or symbol; No. 3 is the snn,and the ten strokes represent ten war- 
parties in which he was engaged. Those figures on the left represent the 
captives which he made in 'each of his excursions, the men being distin- 
guished from the women, and the captives being denoted by having heads, 
while a man without his head is of course a dead man. The centraffigares 
represent three forts which -he attacked; No. 8, one on Lake Erie; No. 9, 
that of Detroit; and No. 10, Fort Pitt, at the junction of the Alleghany and 
the Monongahela. The sloping strokes denote the number of his followers. 



118 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

wood shaped in divers ways. A mode of appeal to the 
memory, found in both the Old and the New World, con- 
sists in uniting packages of strings of different colors, on 
which are made knots of divers forms. These are called 
quippus. You make, so to speak, a quippu every time you 
tie a knot in your handkerchief to enable you to recall 
something. 

Picturing objects, men, events, in a more or less faithful 
manner, is not writing; it is what is called pictography. 
Such are those gross representations employed even to-day 
by the Indians of North America to transmit information 
(Figs. 28 and 29). 

When the object figured has a conventional signification, 
we may say that writing has begun. For example, the 
idea of prudence would be represented by a serpent, that 
of force by a lion. This manner of translating thought is 
symbolic, ideographic writing. It presents many stages. 
The hieroglyphics seen on Egyptian and Mexican monu- 
ments belong here. But all these signs do not constitute 
veritable writing. 

In reality, this appears only when the signs employed 
represent the sounds of the language. After reaching this 
point, writing again presents two very different stages. 
Each syllable may have its particular character ; or, better 
still, the elements of the syllable may be represented. This 
last form constitutes writing, properly speaking. It is this 
that we employ. The collection of signs we call an alpha- 
bet ; and this alphabet, which constitutes the first step of 
elementary instruction, is certainly one of the most marvel- 
ous inventions of the human mind. So almost all the an- 
cients attributed to it a divine origin. 

III. Primitive Forms of Society. — As I just said to you, 
it is by language that societies begin, and by writing that 
they make the greatest progress in civilization. But, be- 
fore they attain civilization, they have long halting-places 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 119 

to get over, and, regarding the human races in their ensem- 
hie, we see three very distinct kinds of primitive society. 

The lowest degree of human association is people that 
hunt and fish ; and this inferiority is easily explained. A 
society composed entirely of hunters cannot be numerous, 
because it must live on the game it kills. Therefore, a 
great space is needed to nourish a sparse population. Be- 
sides, the hunter's chances are for the day ; he is never sure 
of a living for to-morrow. This incessant uncertainty pre- 
vents him from directing his intelligence toward more ele- 
vated subjects. Hunters, besides, have incessantly to watch 
their hunting-grounds to prevent encroachments. In other 
words, the hunter is the image of war. Wars easily arise 
between neighboring populations placed in identical condi- 
tions. These wars are without mercy, for each prisoner is 
one more mouth to feed; kill him, then. Hence, hunting- 
tribes are almost inevitably courageous, sometimes heroic, 
but warlike and cruel. 

As soon as man domesticates certain animals — cattle, 
sheep, or llamas — as soon as he becomes pastoral, his to- 
morrow is assured. He can at once begin to occupy him- 
self with something besides his food ; and we see societies 
of this kind begin to make progress. However, pastoral 
people need vast spaces for their animals ; these promptly 
exhaust the herbage of a canton ; it becomes needful to go 
elsewhere after food for the animals which supply milk and 
flesh, the nourishment of the master, and so a pastoral 
population cannot exist in great numbers. They easily be- 
come nomadic. In their migrations the hordes meet and 
dispute by force of arms for the precious pasturage. War 
breaks them up ; but prisoners may be utilized by the con- 
queror, and their food will not be a great sacrifice. They 
are spared, and slavery is born. 

Society takes its third, form, when man finds that the 
vegetable kingdom furnishes more abundant and reliable 
6 



120 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 



food than that obtained from animals — when he becomes an 
agriculturist. Besides, agriculture gives him leisure. His 
manners soften. War, when it breaks out, becomes less 
cruel. Prisoners employed to work in the field can render 
servit3es more and more considerable. Slavery becomes 
serfdom. Relieved from imperious material necessities, the 
intelligence of the master awakens and enlarges. A true 
civilization may arise and grow among agriculturists. 

Fig. 30. 




Centuries ago Europeans attained a social state permit- 
ting the degree of civilization of which we are so proud, 
and this leads me to make an observation. 

Too often, under the influence of our actual superiority, 
we disdain the people who are behind, whether in the pas- 



INTELLECTUAL CHAKACTERS. 121 

toral state or in the state of hunters. We proclaim them 
incapable of reaching our level. 

This opinion is nowhere justified. Forget not that we 
have passed by the same halting-places. Forget not, 
above all, that many civilizations have preceded our own. 
Two thousand years before our era the Chinese raised 
monuments that still excite the admiration of travelers, cul- 
tivated the mulberry, raised the silk-worm, and possessed 
notions of astronomy. Egyptian civilization is still more 
ancient. You saw proof of this at the Universal Exposi- 
tion. In the temple raised under the direction of N. Mari- 
ette you must have admired, among other things, that 
magnificent statue of Chefren placed at the bottom of the 
hall, and which dates four thousand years before our era. 
At this time we were true savages, covered with the skins 
of beasts, and carrying on our persons, under the pretext 
of embellishing ourselves, paints and tattooing like those 
of the most backward races of our own day. The effect of 
this should be, on the one hand, to awaken our modesty, 
and on the other to render us indulgent to people who are 
yet at the point which we have escaped. 

IV. Industries. — It is in the midst of primitive societies 
that industries are born and flourish. However low a peo- 
ple may be, it always has its own proper industries. Man 
is essentially an industrious being. 

All industries suppose utensils ; and the matter of which 
these utensils are made furnishes the means of determining 
to a certain extent the *degree of civilization attained by 
people whom we know only by traces they have left. 

In the beginning we see stone alone used to fabricate 
utensils and weapons ; for these two things proceed to- 
gether. Everywhere, man is at first content to shape 
more or less perfectly matter furnished him by the soil. 
Look at these samples of stones (Fig. 30) which have 
served as hatchets, whether for domestic use or war. You 



122 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

see they are fashioned very simpl}^ These objects came 
from our soil ; they served our first ancestors, and attest 
the truth I have just stated. 

In proportion as man's progresses, he is not content 
simply to shape the stone ; he polishes it. His first at- 

FiG. 31. 




tempts in this way are coarse enough. At first the edge 
of the hatchet alone is polished ; later the entire hatchet, 
and sometimes in a remarkable manner (Fig. 31). 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 



123 



The hatchets as well as the knives are generally of 
silex, that is, of that species of stone which formerly served 
as flint in striking fire. Its hardness explains why it was 
chosen for these purposes. When it began to fail they 
could employ others. Finally, they fell back on shells, and 
it is impossible not to admire some 
of their works executed with sucli 
imperfect instruments, with frag- 
ments of stone less hard than our 
silex, and the debris of marine 
shells. After stone appeared the 
metals ; but not iron, of which we 
know so well the uses and which 
alone has made possible the mira- 
cles of our modern industry. Cop- 
per and bronze preceded iron ; in 
America copper, in Europe bronze, 
came after stone. 

Finally, iron made its appear- 
ance, and many evidences prove 
that from its first discovery its 
value was understood. In the 
gymnastic plays celebrated by 
Achilles on the tomb of his friend 
Patroclus, at the epoch of the 
Trojan War, twelve centuries be- 
fore our era, a mass of iron is pro- 
posed as a prize, and i^chilles 
himself speaks of its importance. 

The diversity of material em- 
ployed in utensils marks the true 
stages in the history of ancient 

peoples. At this time we generally admit as distinct pe- 
riods the age of stone, the age of bronze, the age of iron. 
The age of stone is divided into two periods, according as 




BOOJJLEKANG. 



124 THE STATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

the utensils and weapons were polished or only shaped. It 
is to this most ai^cient period that the population belonged 
which lived in Europe with the elephant and rhinoceros. 

I must refer you to the special history of the several 
races for further details of their industries. But I will add 
a few facts to the preceding. Let us speak a word about 
the warlike industries. 

Wherever human society exists, we find instruments of 
war. After the need of food, it seems the most pressing 
want of man is to kill or enslave his kind. We may say 
that man is a warlike being. 

Among the lowest people of the globe we find ofi'ensive 
and defensive arms; and everywhere those at the bottom 
of the scale astonish us by the ingenuity of these arms. 
The Australians, certainly a most inferior people, use a not 
very large but very thick shield. Their skill in parrying 
strokes is most remarkable, as all travelers admit. The 
same people use curious weapons ; one, called the hoome- 
rang (Fig. 32), is a bit of hard wood, very flat, sharp, and 
more or less curved. The inhabitants know how to throw 
this little piece of wood so that, after it has struck the en- 
emy OT the game, it rises in the air, turns, and falls into 
the hand of the thrower. The boomerang realizes, then, 
the enchanted arms spoken of in the old fables — arms 
which, after having struck the mark, come back themselves 
to their possessor. 

V. Dress. — If I point out some facts relative to dress, 
it is to show you how much of connection, of real resem- 
blance, there is between the most savage and the most 
civilized people. 

Everywhere and always man has sought to embellish 
himself; sometimes by acting on himself, sometimes by 
borrowing the elements of his dress from without. In 
the tombs discovered from time to time which inclose 
the remains of men with their stone hatchets, used in 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 



125 



France against the elephant and rhinoceros, in those tombs, 
I say, we find collars (Fig. 33) made of morsels of shells 
or small corals which had not, in the eyes of their possess- 
ors, a less value than the precious stones have for us. We 
might almost define man as a being who ornaments him- 
self; and certainly here is a great difi'erence separating 
him from the animals. I shall not dwell on the different 



Fia. 33. 




Necklace. 



materials taken from the exterior world to cover our bodies 
and embellish us. Were you to see a woman of Tahiti in 
grand costume, you would remark that when our grand- 
mothers had contrived the panniers, and the women of our 
day the crinoline, they only borrowed from the children 
of the South Sea a part of their attire. 

It is worthy of attention that, under the pretext of 
embellishing himself, man has almost always sought to 
modify his own body. So the Chinese women, in order to 
make their feet very small, cripple themselves in so grave 
a manner that often the little children succumb in the 
operation. The bones of the heel, in place of elongating 
behind, are violently displaced and directed downward, so 
that the women walk on their own heels as on the heels 



126 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

of their shoes. The toes are likewise turned under, the 
big-toe alone being in place. Our women do not go so 
far; but you know women who, to make the feet small, 
fear not to give themselves corns, and m-any men do the 
same. 

At the Philippines, the group of isles that you see at 
the east of Asia, is a people whose women attach great 
importance to having the largest possible fist. To make it 
large, they swaddle the arms, which consequently remain 
slender, while the fist enlarges in a fashion very repulsive 
to our European eyes. 

But the head seems to have been, by preference, the 
object of these strange caprices, probably because it is 
the part of the body most evident and most important. 
Some people seek to change completely the form of the 
cranium. For this purpose they place on the heads of chil- 
dren, immediately after birth, contrivances which project 
them forward or backward, and then, by pressing tightly 
behind and before, the head is made flat. There is a peo- 
ple on the western side of America which surrounds the 
head of the infant with a bandage so as to give it the form 
of a sugar-loaf. 

I must remind you that among ourselves the ears are 
still pierced to suspend ornaments from them. If men 
have generally renounced this fashion, women remain very 
faithful to it. But all the other parts of the visage have 
been submitted to the same mutilations, the nose, the lips, 
the cheeks themselves have been pierced, always to suspend 
or introduce into the openings some morsel of wood, of 
stone, of bone, as ornament. 

The face and the forehead are frequently decorated 
with divers tattooings (Figs. 34 and 35), made sometimes by 
pricking, and sometimes by cutting the skin. At the Mar- 
quesas Isles, not only the countenance, but the entire body 
s tattooed. You see here the figure of a man (Fig. 36) 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 



127 



and perhaps you think him covered with a motley cos- 
tume ; no, it is simply tattooing. 

Jest not too much at these ornaments of savages. Our 
ancestors wore the same, and the fashion is not wholly 
effaced with us. More than one of you, doubtless, has on 
the arm or on the breast some red or blue figure represent- 
ing a heart pierced, two swords crossed, an anchor, or a 
hammer, symbols of your profession. 



Fig. 34. 



Fig. 35. 




Head of New-Zealander. 



Head or New-Zealander. 



Along with these tattooings incrusted in the skin by 
various processes, we may place also the paintings. Here, 
again, is a means of embellishing that every people has 
practised and practises still. Sometimes these paintings 
have precise significations ; there are the paintings of war, 
the paintings of peace, the paintings of fetes, etc. We do 
not go so far; but we mast not forget that the most civil- 
ized Europeans have painted and still paint the counte- 



128 



THE NATURAL HISTOEY OF MAN. 



nance. Our grandmothers habitually used white, and, 
above all, red ; they put on patches, that is to say, small 
rounds of court-plaster, to give beauty to the skin by con- 



FiG. 36. 




Oabollne-Islandee. 



trast. And to-day, you know, our fashionable women tint 
themselves so well that a word has been invented on this 



INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERS. 



129 



subject. So we find, in our most elevated classes, that 
which seems so strange in savages. 

Fia. 37. 




Fijian Modes of ckessing the Haie. 



130 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

The head of hair offers the same considerations. With 
savages as with us, it is an object of no less special care 
Negroes, Hotteatots, Polynesians, etc., stiffen their hair 
with grease, and color it with powders, red, yellow, white, 
etc. (Fig. 37). Everywhere they decorate it with flowers, 
feathers of all sorts, brilliant crystals, grains of glass. 
Well, our fathers pomaded and powdered themselves ; our 
women pomade themselves, and put flowers, feathers, and 
diamonds, in their hair, which are, after all, only crystals, 
more or less dear. And as to our pomades, whatever name 
we give them, they always have, for foundation, the oil of 
almonds, or the fat of pork. You see that, between the 
article used by savages and that we make ourselves, there 
is no great difference. 

III. Moral and Religious Characters. — We pass to 
another order of characters. By his body, I repeat, man is 
an animal, nothing more, nothing less ; by his intelligence 
he is infinitely superior to animals. But, to judge by fun- 
damental phenomena, the nature of our intelligence does 
not differ from that which they manifest. 

Are we, then, only a more intelligent kind of animal ? 
I have already answered this question. No ; we are not 
animals, we are something else ; for, besides the phenom- 
ena which we have in common with them, we have our 
special character, connected with faculties, of which we find 
not the least trace in the most elevated animals. These 
faculties are morality and religion. 

I. Morality. — Among all people, in all races, there are 
expressions which mean good and bad, honest man and 
scoundrel ; consequently, all men have the abstract notion 
of good and evil. 

Objections have been made to this idea that morality 
is an attribute of man ; or, rather, difficulties have been 
raised on the subject. Some say, for example, that animals 
also know what is good and what is bad. This is true for 



MOKAL AND RELIGIOUS CHARACTERS. 131 

our most perfect domestic animals, as the dog. Thanks to 
our superior intelligence, we have accustomed them to that 
which is good and bad for us. But leave them in a savage 
state, and you will never find them doing any thing to 
which you can attach the notion here implied. Man is cer- 
tainly the only being that we see war against pain — physi- 
cal evil — that he may reach moral good. 

It has been said again that morals diflfer from people to 
people, and the attempt has been made to draw from this 
an inference that morality is not characteristic of man. 
The faculty itself is here confounded with its manifestations. 
We forget that the same sentiment can be expressed by 
very different and sometimes opposite acts. I will take, for 
example, those which testify to pohteness and the respect 
we pay to superiors. In the same case, the European rises 
and uncovers his head ; the Turk, on the contrary, remains 
with the head covered, and the Polynesian sits. These con- 
trary acts are not less, the one than the other, acts of defer- 
ence. 

We must place ourselves at this point of view to judge 
of morality. We must, in such eases, and, above all, when 
it is a question of inferior peoples, forget our own notions 
on this subject, and seek after the general ideas of the peo- 
ple we are studying. We must recur to what has taken 
place with us at certain epochs, and then we shall find that 
there is not as much difference as we imagined between the 
most civilized and the most savage people. We shall re- 
turn to the subject in treating the history of races. To-day 
I can only say a few words relative to three chief principles ; 
Respect for property^ respect for the life of others^ and re- 
spect for one's self 

I. Respect for Property. — It has been said that the 
notion of property does not exist among savage people. 
This is an error. With them, arms, utensils, instruments, 
are strictly personal property, as with us ; but some travel- 



132 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

ers have been deceived by the existence, among hunting- 
tribes, of another kind of property, communal property, if I 
may so speak. Among these people the ground does not 
belong to the individual, but to the entire tribe. Under 
this relation the property is so well known that war is the 
consequence of the least violation of the hunting-limits. 

Certain races have been accused of being essentially 
thievish. This reproach is brought particularly upon the 
negroes of the Gulf of Guinea, and upon the Polynesians. 
They have been accused of stealing even the nails of the 
ship. But let me remind you what iron is for people who 
do not have it. It is more precious to them than gold. 
Well, suppose there should arrive among us a ship, gold 
clad and nailed with diamonds and rubies. Do you believe 
it would go out intact from our ports ? Remark further, 
that, among the negroes of Guinea and Polynesia, those 
who steal of their comrade are dishonored and punished as 
they would be with us. They have the idea of respect for 
property the same as ourselves. 

II. Respect for Life, — Everywhere the life of man 
is sacred ; everywhere the murderer is punished ; but, with 
ourselves, circumstances determine the nature of the act. 
Nobody would treat as an assassin him who beats fairly in 
a duel ; the soldier who has killed with his hand a great 
number of enemies is decorated ; very far from being 
punished, he is recompensed. "With savages the formula is 
still more elastic. For him the stranger is always an 
enemy ; besides, vengeance is in his eyes a virtue, and when 
he has a murder to avenge he cares little to strike the 
murderer himself. Provided he punishes a member of his 
family or his tribe, his vengeance is satisfied ; whence re- 
sults the had blood between European travelers and the 
Polynesians in particular. These people have too often 
complained of violence exercised by Europeans, who have 
left without being punished. The savage watches for those 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS CHARACTERS. 133 

who come after the really guilty, sets a trap for them, and 
massacres the innocents. He applies his moral law, and we 
find the theory horrible. But forget not our middle age; 
we have got the start a little, but, in our day, if the vendetta 
were not abolished in Corsica, it would be the same, as it 
was the same in Scotland between clan and clan. 

For the rest, gentlemen, the question of respect for the 
life of others is one of those that I least like to enter upon, 
because I cannot speak without blushing for the white 
race. You know that it rules everywhere, but some of you 
do not know, perhaps, that everywhere devastation and 
massacre have marked its steps round the world. It seems 
that it has used its superiority to annihilate its sister races, 
and reign on their tombs. 

in. Respect for Self. — I have shown you that the evils 
of which we accuse the savages exist with us. Permit me 
to show you among them the good of which civilized 
people pretend to have the monopoly. The sentiments of 
honor and of modesty are certainly two of the most noble 
and most delicate of the respect due to one's self. We find 
these two sentiments developed sometimes in a high degree 
in the most savage peoples. 

It is evident that the idea of modesty must vary from 
one region to another ; it cannot be the same among people 
forced by the climate to go naked, and among those who 
are compelled, by the rigors of climate, to wear clorthes. 
We ought, in this respect, to look for marked differences, 
and to take account of these exigencies ; besides, from 
the nature of the subject, I cannot enter into details, and 
I will only say that more than one traveler has expressed 
his astonishment to find more of true modesty among naked 
savages than among civilized and well-clothed people. 

Honor is, perhaps, the sentiment which is most uni- 
formly manifested among these people. To obey the sense 
of honor, they hesitate not to provoke torments ; to brave, 



/ 



134 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

and even to solicit, death. A young Kaffre chief is con- 
demned to death ; he may be pardoned on the condition of 
losing his ostrich-feather, which for him represents epau- 
lets ; he demands, as a favor, to be thrown to the crocodiles 
rather than be dishonored. The red-skin made a prisoner, 
bound to the post of torture, defies his enemies to ex- 
tract from him the least sign of suffering. 

That which we call chivalric generosity exists among 
the most savage peoples. Two Irishmen quarreled one day 
with some Australians ; they were without arms. Instead 
of profiting by this advantage, the savages gave them arms 
that they might defend themselves. 

In our war at Tahiti, Admiral Bruet, commander of the 
French forces, took a bath one day in a river of the interior 
of the isle, while a well-armed chief belonging to the enemy 
was concealed near by. When peace was gained, this chief 
came to see the admiral, and easily showed him that for 
nearly two hours his life had been in his power. " Why 
did you not draw ? " said the admiral. " I should have 
been dishonored in the eyes of my people," replied the 
native, " if I had killed by surprise a chief such as thou." 

See how the people called savages often conduct them- 
selves. Would we do better ? 

You see, gentlemen, and you may fearlessly say, to 
the honor of our species, that morality, in its more serious 
as well as in its more delicate aspects, is found among 
all men ; and, decisively, man is a moral being. 

II. Religion. — I come now to another order of consid- 
erations, that it will perhaps surprise you to hear me dis- 
cuss. I have said, at different times, that I wished to remain 
a man of science, that I did not wish to enter here upon 
either philosophy or theology, and j^et I am going to speak 
of religion. I shall continue faithful to my programme. 
It is as a naturalist that I shall take up the subject. As 
for morality, I showed the existence of the faculty : then I 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS CHARACTERS. 135 

pointed out some general facts, reserving the special facts 
for the history of races. To-daj, as heretofore, I shall 
avoid with care the dogmatic and the fcheologic side of the 
discussion. 

The first fact to establish is the universality of the mani- 
festations which belong to religion. In every country, 
with all peoples, in all races, we find the belief in beings 
superior to man, and influencing his destin}^ for good or 
evil. Everywhere we find the belief in another life succeed- 
ing to the actual life. These two notions lie at the founda- 
tion of all religions, and whoever. admits them is religious. 
We can say, then, of man generally, that he is certainly re- 
ligious. 

Objections have been made to the generality of this 
character. Let us rapidly examine the case. 

Some authors affirm that there exist atheistic people. 
They have cited in proof the Australians of whom I have 
already spoken, and Bushmen. These are mistaken asser- 
tions ; but this error may be explained. Three causes, act- 
ing together or separately, have contributed to a misunder- 
standing of the religious beliefs of the inferior races of hu- 
manity. 

The first is the belief of travelers. When these travel- 
ers are missionaries, having an ardent faith but a narrow 
intelligence, they are easily led not to accept, as true, reli- 
gious beliefs so difi"erent from their own. Often, in their 
eyes, these beliefs are a work of the devil ; they put them 
aside, or do not take the trouble to discover them, and they 
ofi'er us, as atheistic, people who certainly are not. 

Ignorance of the language often leads to regarding a 
people as atheistic. A traveler encounters a savage tribe ; 
he puts questions, well or ill, often by signs alone, on the 
Deity, or on the soul ; the natives do not understand, and 
reply by some gesture of negation, and the traveler con- 
cludes that they believe neither in God nor immortality. 



136 THE NATUEAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

But, the great cause which has often led to the conclu- 
sion I am opposing, is the disdain of Europeans for savages. 
Generally, the European, proud of his knowledge, and over- 
rating his superiority, judges in advance their incapacity to 
attain to notions a little elevated. He takes no great pains 
to discover what he believes does not exist. At the first 
failure he thinks himself right in concluding that these in- 
ferior races are incapable of attaining to the notion of God 
and of a future life. 

Happily there are some tolerant missionaries who have 
studied them more closely, and laymen who have been able 
to see -brothers in these inferior representatives of the 
human family. Thanks to the intelligence of these patient, 
clear-headed men, we now know that these Australians, 
that were said to have no idea of God, have in reality a rudi- 
mentary mythology, which sometimes recalls our own Euro- 
pean superstitions. "We now know that the Bushmen deify 
their great men, and address prayers to them. These Bush- 
men have a remarkable idea of the Divinity. They regard him 
as a great chief, who resides in heaven. They say of him ; 
" We see him not with the eyes ; we feel him in the heart." 

This last phrase, which I quote literally, was obtained 
by travelers who lived in the midst of these people. They 
show that sometimes the people justly placed in the low- 
est rank of the human races may have, along with the 
strangest superstitions, religious notions remarkably ele- 
vated. This fact is often presented when we examine the 
religion of different people. We find, it is true, much 
that is bizarre^ many strange and shocking things, but we 
find also behind these absurdities ideas and beliefs which 
astonish us by their seriousness, by their elevation, by the 
resemblance they offer to that which is believed by more 
advanced people. 

The negroes of Guinea may serve to illustrate this sub- 
ject. All travelers have spoken of their absurd beliefs, all 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS CHARACTERS. 137 

have spoken of their fetiches. They tell us how these peo- 
ple prostrate themselves before serpents, trees, bits of 
wood, bone, etc., carefully wrapped up, and on which their 
priests have performed certain ceremonies. There are few 
who would seek that which might be found at the bottom 
of all this. Those who have made the search have found 
religious ideas, very superior to these appearances; the 
belief in divinities of different orders, living in the skies, 
and presided over by a sovereign creator who made every- 
thing. When we look still further, as M. d'Avezac has 
done, we find prayers conceived in terms such as a Euro- 
pean, a Christian, might repeat without blushing. In the 
case of these negroes, as in our own, we must distinguish 
between religion and superstition, two extremely different 
things, which are too often confounded. I will add but 
a few words. 

Gentlemen, I close to-day the first part of the lectures 
that I have undertaken to give you. Let me formulate the 
last conclusions. 

We have asked only general questions, those which bear 
on the entire human race, and which may consequently 
conduct us to the foundation of the nature of man. We 
have asked them exclusively from the point of view of natu- 
ral science ; we have studied man as we study an animal 
or a plant. The result of this examination is to show in 
man a resume of the entire creation. 

In him we find phenomena exactly parallel to those 
encountered in minerals, in plants ; consequently, all the 
forces acting in minerals and plants we find in man. 

By his body, from an anatomical and physical point of 
view, man is an animal, nothing more, nothing less ; hence 
all the animal forces act in him. 

But is it by his body that man has acquired that em- 
pire that we have seen he possesses ? You know very well 
it is not ; you know very well that, if he reigns over all 



138 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 

around him, over inanimate Nature as over organized Na- 
ture, he owes it to his intelligence, of like nature, but im- 
mensely superior to that of animals. 

Finally, man has his own attributes — faculties that 
belong exclusively to him — morality and religion. Well, 
these exclusively human faculties seem admirably to com- 
plete this exceptional being. It is these that ennoble him, 
and justify the incontestable empire that he claims over 
the globe; for it is these which, along with the sentiment 
of punishment, give birth to the idea of duty, the thought 
of responsibility. 

Here, gentlemen, is the summing up that one is led to 
make of man when he is studied exclusively from knowl- 
edge by the naturalist. 



APPENDIX 



Prof. Htjxley, in his volume entitled " Evidence as to 
Man's Place in Nature," presents the other side of this 
question as follows : " Science has fulfilled her function 
when she has ascertained and enunciated truth; and, were 
these pages addressed to men of science only, I should 
now close this essay, knowing that my colleagues have 
learned to respect nothing but evidence, and to believe 
that their highest duty lies in submitting to it, however it 
may jar against their inclinations. 

" But, desiring, as I do, to reach the wider circle of the 
intelligent public, it would be unworthy cowardice w^ere I 
to ignore the repugnance with which the majority of my 
readers are likely to meet the conclusions to which the 
most careful and conscientious study, I have been able to 
give to this matter, has led me. 

"On all sides I shall hear the cry: 'We are men and 
women, and not a mere better sort of apes, a little longer 
in the leg, more compact in the foot, and bigger in brain, 
than your brutal chimpanzees and gorillas. The power of 
knowledge, the consciousness of good and evil, the pitiful 
tenderness of human affections, raise us out of all real fel- 
lowship with the brutes, however closely they may seem 
to approximate us.' 



140 APPENDIX. 

" To this I can only reply that the exclamation would 
be more just and would have my own entire sympathy, if 
it were more relevant. But it is not I who seek to base 
man's dignity upon his great -toe, or insinuate that we are 
lost if an ape has an hippocampus minor. On the contrary, 
I have done my best to sweep away this vanity. I have 
endeavored to show that no absolute structural line of de- 
marcation, wider than that between animals which imme- 
diately succeed us in the scale, can be drawn between the 
animal world and ourselves ; and I may add the expression 
of my belief that the attempt to draw a physical distinc- 
tion is equally futile, and that even the highest faculties 
of feeling and of intellect begin to germinate in lower 
forms of life. At the same time no one is more strongly 
convinced than I am of the vastness of the gulf between 
civilized man and the brutes; or is more certain that, 
whether from them or not, he is assuredly not of them. 
No one is less disposed to think lightly of the present dig- 
nity, or despairingly of the future hopes, of the only con- 
sciously intelligent denizen of this world. 

" We are indeed told, by those who assume authority 
in these matters, that the two sets of opinions are incom- 
patible, and that the belief in the unity of origin of man 
and brutes involves the brutalization and degradation of 
the former. But is this really so ? Could not a sensible 
child confute, by obvious arguments, the shallow rhetori- 
cians who would force this conclusion upon us ? Is it in- 
deed true that the poet, or the philosopher, or the artist, 
whose genius is the glory of his age, is degraded from his 
high estate by the undoubted historical probability, not to 
say certainty, that he is the direct descendant of some 
naked and bestial savage, whose intelligence was just suf- 
ficient to make him a little more cunning than the fox, and 
by so much more dangerous than the tiger? Or is he 
bound to howl and grovel on all-fours because of the wholly 



APPENDIX. 141 

unquestionable fact tbat he was once an egg, which no 
ordinary power of discrimination could distinguish from 
that of a dog ? Or is the philanthropist, or the saint, to 
give up his endeavors to lead a noble life, because the 
simplest study of man's nature reveals, at its foundations, 
all the selfish passions and fierce appetites of the merest 
quadruped ? Is mother-love vile because a hen shows it, 
or fidelity base because dogs possess it ? 

" The common-sense of the mass of mankind will an- 
swer these questions without a moment's hesitation. 
Healthy humanity, finding itself hard pressed to escape 
from real sin and degradation, will leave the brooding over 
speculative pollution to the cynics and the righteous ' over- 
much' who, disagreeing in every thing else, unite in blind 
insensibility to the nobleness of the visible world, and in 
inability to appreciate the grandeur of the place man occu- 
pies therein. 

"Nay, more, thoughtful men, once escaped from the 
blinding influences of traditional prejudice, will find, in the 
lowly stock whence man has sprung, the best evidence of 
the splendor of his capacities ; and will discern, in his long 
progress through the past, a reasonable ground of faith in 
his attainment of a nobler future." 



B. 

It is probable that if M. Quatrefages had made the ex- 
periment of taking persons to a case wherein were jackals, 
wolves, and varieties of " dogs," from the Esquimaux to the 
greyhound, the bull-dog, and terriers (not labeled), he 
would have come to an entirely diJBPerent conclusion. In 
fact, there is much less difference between the wolf and 
some dogs — e. g., Esquimaux and Spitz — than between 
them and some fancy breeds. The name (dog) indeed is a 



142 APPENDIX. 

quasi generic term connected with an assumption of com- 
mon origin of the animals embraced thereunder; in other 
words, it is the expression of a preconceived idea which 
will not stand the test of analysis, or confronting with 
facts. So far are the propositions that dogs and wolves are 
different species from being true, that the eminent John 
Hunter, after a series of experiments on their mutual fer- 
tility, came to the conclusion that they (as well as the 
jackal) are of the same species, and M. Quatrefages, if 
obedient to his own criterion of specific determination, 
should have come to the same conclusion. 



C. 

On the contrary, not only have hares and rabbits fre- 
quently reproduced with each other {see Gindre, " Rapport 
d la Commission des Recompenses sur le Memoire de M. 
Gayot relatif aux L^porides." Bulletin de la Societe Im- 
periale Zoologique d'Acclimatation, 1870, pp. 659-667), but 
with certain precautions they readily copulate and produce 
young, and these hybrids and their descendants are fertile 
among themselves, and the hybrids between the hare and 
the leporide are " fine and valuable animals for the table, 
growing quickly and attaining a greater size than the lepo- 
rides. They are excellent for the market, and can be sent 
there when four months old. They have admirable health, 
beauty, and size" {op. eit.^ 1873, p. 871). 



D. 

Otje information respecting hybrids is too limited as 
yet to afford us a sufficiently large inductive basis for gen- 
eralization, but it is at least certain that M. Quatrefages's 



APPENDIX. 143 

laws are altogether too general, and that, in fact, there are 
no such laws. In the cases especially referred to (the 
horse and the ass), we have representatives not only of 
different species but of different genera ; and, although the 
hybrids of these, as a rule, are infertile, exceptionally they 
have reproduced with the parent-stock. In another case, 
however, where the representatives not only of different 
genera [Bos and JBison) were coupled, the hybrids were 
perfectly fruitful when coupled with the parent buffalo, 
and, so far as the experiments are recorded, no difficulty 
was experienced in raising offspring from the hybrids. 
Still more : there are two species of geese so distinct that 
they have been generically separated, i. e., the common 
goose {Ajiser) and the Chinese {Gygnopsis^ Gygnoides)^ 
and yet not only have (1) hybrids been obtained, but those 
hybrids (2) were fertile with the parents, and (3) with each 
other, to an indefinite extent. In a state of nature, too 
on the confines of the geographical limits of tAvo species 
of woodpecker [Colaptes auratus and Colaptes Mexicanus)^ 
intermediate forms of all degrees are found, and in such 
numbers as to have produced a specific name [Golaptes 
hyhrides), and the inference is that they are hybrids be- 
tween the different species, and are fertile among them- 
selves. Many examples of like and even excessive fertility 
of hybrids might be adduced in the case of plants. It must 
be admitted, however, that in a state of nature animals of 
the same kind prefer to associate together, and that infer- 
tility, or diminished fertility^ is the efle whe7i animals 
and plants of very different species unite. 

On the other hand, we have another curious assemblage 
of facts. The experiments of various investigators, and 
especially of Mr. Darwin and Fritz Mtiller, prove that, 
when flowers are dependent on self-fertilization, there is 
diminished fertility, and even barrenness, and every stock- 
breeder will testify to the impoverishment of stock by 



144 APPENDIX. 

interbreeding. In connection with the rule just referred to, 
then, we have to consider another, i. e., that infertility^ or 
diminished fertility^ is the rule when animcds and plants 
very closely related {by consanguinity) unite. Sterility is 
thus a two-edged weapon which must be used with caution, 
or not used till we know more about it, and the accumu- 
lated evidence tends to show that there is every degree of 
fertility and sterility coordinated, but in not very definite 
ratio, with the affinities of the subjects. 

The chief objection of many eminent naturalists of 
England, Germany, and the United States, to the view of 
species presented by M. Quatrefages, is its assumption 
that they are immutable. The works of Mr. Charles Dar- 
win, published from time to time during the last ten or 
twelve years, have led to a wide-spread suspicion that 
varieties are incipient species, and that the prevalent ste- 
rility of species, when crossed, is due to changes in the 
reproductive system, brought about, if not in the same way 
as are the changes that produce varieties and races, that is, 
by natural selection, yet that they have arisen incidentally 
during the slow formation of species in connection with 
other and unknown changes in their organization. Dar- 
win's work on the " Origin of Species " is filled with facts 
and arguments in support of this view. In his chapter 
upon Hybridism, Mr. Darwin says : " It is certain, on the 
one hand, that the sterility of various species when crossed 
is so different in degree, and graduates away so insensibly, 
and, on the other hand, that fertility of pure species is so 
easily affected by various circumstances, that for all practi- 
cal purposes it is most difficult to say where perfect fer- 
tility ends and sterility begins. I think no better evidence 
of this can be required than that the two most experienced 
observers who have ever lived, namely, Kolreuter and Gart- 
ner, arrived at diametrically opposite conclusions in regard 
to the very same forms. It is also most instructive to 



APPENDIX. 145 

compare the evidence advanced by our best botanists on 
the question whether certain doubtful forms should be 
ranked as species or varieties, with the evidence from fer- 
tility adduced by diflferent hybridizers, or by the same ob- 
server from experiments made during different 3'ears. It 
can thus be shown that neither sterility nor fertility affords 
any certain distinction between species and varieties. The 
evidence from this source graduates away, and is doubtful 
in the same degree as is the evidence from other constitu- 
tional and structural differences." Again he says : 

" I have as yet spoken, as if the varieties of the same species 
were invariably fertile when intercrossed. But it is impossible to 
resist the evidence of the existence of a certain amount of sterility 
in the few following cases, which I will briefly abstract. The 
evidence is at least as good as that from which we believe in the 
sterility of a multitude of species. The evidence is, also, derived 
from hostile witnesses, who in all other cases consider fertility 
and sterility as safe criterions of specific distinction. Gartner 
kept during several years a dwarf kind of maize with yellow 
seeds, and a tall variety with red seeds growing near each other 
in his garden ; and although these plants have separated sexes, 
they never naturally crossed. He then fertilized thirteen flowers 
of the one kind with pollen of the other; but only a single head 
produced any seed, and this one head produced only five grains. 
Manipulation in this case could not have been injurious, as the 
plants have separated sexes. 'No one, I believe, has suspected 
that these varieties of maize are distinct species ; and it is im- 
portant to notice that the hybrid plants thus raised were them- 
selves perfectly fertile ; so that even Gartner did not venture to 
consider the two varieties as specifically distinct, 

" Girou de Buzareingues crossed three varieties of gourd, 
which like the maize has separated sexes, and he asserts that their 
mutual fertilization is by so much the less easy as their diff'erences 
are greater. How far these experiments may be trusted, I know 
not ; but the forms experimented on are ranked by Sagaret, who 
mainly founds his classification by the test of infertility, as vari- 
eties, and N'audin has come to the same conclusion. 



146 APPENDIX. 

" The following case is far more remarkable, and seems at first 
incredible ; but it is the result of an astonishing number of ex- 
periments made during manj years on nine species of Yerbascum, 
by so good an observer and so hostile a witness as Gartner : 
namely, that the yellow and white varieties wlien crossed produce 
less seed than the similarly-colored varieties of the same species. 
Moreover, he asserts that, when yellow and white varieties of 
one species are crossed with yellow and white varieties of a dis- 
tinct species, more seed is produced by the crosses between the 
similarly-colored flowers than between those which are different- 
ly colored. Mr. Scott also has experimented on the species and 
varieties of Verbascum ; and, although unable to confirm Gartner's 
results on the crossing of the distinct species, he finds that the 
dissimilarly-colored varieties of the same species yield fewer 
seeds, in the proportion of 86 to 100, than the similarly-colored 
varieties. Yet these varieties differ in no respect except in the 
color of their flowers ; and one variety can sometimes be raised 
from the seed of another. 

" Kolreuter, whose accuracy has been confirmed by every sub- 
sequent observer, has proved the remarkable fact that one par- 
ticular variety of the common tobacco was more fertile than the 
other varieties, when crossed with a widely-distinct species. He 
experimented on five forms which are commonly reputed to' be 
varieties, and which he tested by the severest trial, namely, by 
reciprocal crosses, and he found their mongrel offspring perfectly 
fertile. But one of these five varieties, when used either as the 
father or mother, and crossed with the N'icotiana glutinosa, al- 
ways yielded hybrids not so sterile as those which were pro- 
duced from the four other varieties when crossed with N'icoti- 
ana glutinosa. Hence the reproductive system of this one 
variety must have been in some manner and in some degree 
modified. 

" From these facts it can no longer be maintained that vari- 
eties when crossed are invariably quite fertile. From the great 
difficulty of ascertaining the infertility of varieties in a state of 
nature, for a supposed variety, if proved to be infertile in any 
degree, would almost universally be ranked as a species ; from 
man attending only to external characters in his domestic vari- 
eties, and from such varieties not having been exposed for very 



APPENDIX. 147 

long periods to uniform conditions of life ; from these several 
considerations we may conclude that fertility does not constitute 
a fundamental distinction between varieties and species when 
crossed. The general sterility of crossed species may safely be 
looked at, not as a special acquirement or endowment, but as 
incidental on changes of an unknown nature in their sexual ele- 
ments. 

" Independently of the question of fertility and sterility, in 
all other respects there seems to be a general and close similarity 
in the offspring of crossed species, and of crossed varieties. If we 
look at species as having been specially created, and at varieties 
as having been produced by secondary laws, this similarity would 
be an astonishing fact. But it harmonizes perfectly with the 
view that there is no essential distinction between species and 
varieties." 



E. 

It will occur to many of our readers that in this propo- 
sition a logical fallacy in the form of a petitio principii 
is involved. It is assumed — 1. That fertility is an invariable 
criterion of varieties, and 2. That infertility is an equally 
invariable criterion of species, and, as expressly urged, no 
structural evidence is sufficient to gainsay that evidence. 
Applying these criterions — (1) inasmuch as no limit has 
been found to the fertility between the common goose and 
the Chinese goose, those animals are of the same species, 
and (2) inasmuch as no fruit has been obtained from individ- 
ual flowers of the same plant of certain species of lobelia, 
passion-flowers, orchids, etc. (although fertile with those 
of other plants), those individuals belong to difierent 
species ! The reductio ad ahsurdum is indeed completed 
by the terms of M. Quatrefages's propositions, and the 
facts confronting them. 



148 APPENDIX. 



F. 



Other views are entertained by eminent archseologists. 
In an address before the Oriental Society of London, Sep- 
tember 20, 1874, Prof. Richard Owen makes a strong 
claim as a geologist for the recognition of far more ex- 
tended periods of time since the appearance of man than 
are usually allowed by anthropologists. He states that 
probably we must remove the scene of the origin of man 
to another continent, which has been since submerged, leav- 
ing only an archipelago. Prof. Owen says : 

" The Papuans of New Guinea, with cognate dark-skinned, 
crisp-haired,' prognathic peoples of Australia, New Hebrides, New 
Caledonia, and neighboring islands, bespeak by affinities of their 
rude dialects, as well as bj physical characters, a low and early 
race of mankind, which in some respects indicate kinship with the 
Boschismen of South Africa, but are yet sufficiently distinct to sug- 
gest a long term of existence in another and distant continent. 
Zoological and geological evidences concur, as in a degree exem- 
plified in Wallace's 'Malay Archipelago,' to point to a prehistoric 
race of mankind, existing generation after generation on a con- 
tinent which, in course of gradual, non-cataclysmal, geological 
change, has been broken up into insular patches of land ; there such 
race is still open to ethnological study. Wending westward to 
regain the proper field of our congress, we have evidences of as 
early — if I say ' primitive ' it is because we know none earlier — 
bipeds, in the trans-Gangetic peninsula and Indonesian Archi- 
pelago. These Nigritos, in India, have fled before invaders from 
the sub-Himalayan range, represented by Burmese and Siamese ; 
before invaders from the South, the Malays, with their maritime 
advance in civilization; before later immigrations from the North, 
with the religion and literature respectively of the Aryan Hindoos 
and the Arab Mussulmans. Fragments of the dwarf Nigrito 
stratum may be picked up — a scanty one in Engomho, the largest 
island off Sumatra, in the Mergui Archipelago, in the Nicobar 
Isles, and in the Andamans. The Nigritos who have survived 
such changes, and have been caught, so to speak, upon a new con- 



APPENDIX. 149 

tinent, have i)reserved themselves in mountain fastnesses and 
forests, have iled before later immigrants, have never assimilated 
therewith, have always been looked upon by them as prior in 
time, and now are verging toward extinction. In speculating, 
therefore, on the place of origin of Mincopics and hill-tribes, I 
would impress upon ethnologists to set aside ideas of the actual 
disposition of land and sea as being necessarily related thereto, 
and to associate with the beginning of such low forms of humanity 
a lapse of time in harmony with the latest geological changes of 
the earth's surface. . . . The cardinal defect of speculators on the 
origin of the human species seems to me to be the assumption that 
the present geographical condition of the earth's surface preceded 
or coexisted with the origin of such species." 



G. 

Some of our readers will hardly be prepared to learn 
that M. Gratiolet scarcely knew any thing, whatever from 
autopsy of the development of the brain in any of the true 
apes {/Simiince), and that the only basis for the strong 
statements made in the text is as follows : 

" I have found," says Gratiolet, " by a careful compari- 
son of adult brains in men and monkeys, that they are ar- 
ranged in the same plan as to the gyrations, and, when the 
view is thus limited to the adult structure, there is no 
marked ground for separating them. But, in studying 
the development, I find that in apes" (monkeys) '''•the 
gyrations of the posterior lohes appear before those of 
the anterior lobes, which is just the reverse of the suc- 
cession in man." The dijGFerences, in fact, simply amount 
to this ; 

(a.) In man the appearance of the superficial convolu- 
tions is accelerated toward the anterior portion of the cere- 
brum, and to such a degree that those of the anterioi lobe 
are first developed. 



150 APPENDIX. 

(b.) In monkeys the development of the same convolu- 
tions is retarded, and consequently those of the temporal 
lobes are first developed. 

Such are the differences which isolate man from " ani- 
mals ! " 

But even such differences, as already intimated, have 
not been verified, in the case of the apes ; and far from the 
inference being a necessary one that their development will 
be the same as in the lower monkeys, it is scarcely legiti- 
mate as a provisional one, inasmuch as the higher apes in 
many features notably resemble man more than the mon- 
key, and it may be that they represent an intermediate 
stage, or even that they approximate most to man in 
those respects. At least the statement in the text is 
premature. 

But perhaps the same succession may be verified in the 
apes as in monkeys; and there are parallel cases which 
M. Quatrefages has neglected — notably the development of 
the teeth. 

The teeth are essentially similar in man and the apes 
(as are the convolutions, according to M. Gratiolet), "but, 
in studying the development," it is found that in apes the 
hindmost (as well as other) grinders appear before the 
canines of the second set, " which is just the reverse of 
their succession in man," in whom they are cut after the 
canines (eye-teeth) of the second series; and in this re- 
spect the lowest apes (gibbons) most nearly resemble him ! 

Inasmuch, however, as there is no exact ratio as to 
dates in the relative appearance of these teeth, any more 
than there is in the development of the convolutions of 
the brain, although the formal antithesis may appear strik- 
ing, in reality, there is a gradual transition from one type 
to the other, and it would be unsafe for man to base his 
tenure to manhood in the possession of any such differ- 
ences. A little acceleration of the one, a little retarda- 



APPEXDIX. 151 

tion of the other, would result in approximation ; in time, 
if continued, would bring coincidence, and finally reversal 
of development. 

H. 

This very decided opinion of Quatrefages's may be met 
by the equally decided counter-statement of Mr. Darwin, 
as given in his work on the " Descent of Man." In sum- 
ming up the evidence and arguments which he has em- 
ployed, he says that the conclusion now held by many 
competent naturalists is, that man is descended from some 
lower and extinct form. The close similarity between man 
and the lower animals in embryonic development and in 
bodily structure and constitution, the rudimentary organs 
he retains, which are regularly present and highly service- 
able to many animals, and the reversions to which he is 
liable, are facts which cannot be disputed. They have 
long been known, but told us nothing of the origin of man, 
till viewed by the light of our recent knowledge. It is 
now seen that the great principle of Evolution stands up 
clear, firm, and unmistakable, when these facts are consid- 
ered in connection with the classification of organized be- 
ings, their geographical distribution and geological succes- 
sion. It is incredible that all these facts should speak 
falsely. A careful study of the phenomena of Nature, in 
their connections, forces us to admit that the close resem- 
blance of the embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog, 
the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole frame, on the 
same plan as that of other mammals — the occasional reap- 
pearance of various structures, which man does not nor- 
mally possess, but which are common to the quadrumana, 
and a crowd of analogous facts — all point in the plainest 
manner to the conclusion that man is the co-descendant 
with other mammals of a common progenitor, that we car 



152 APPENDIX. 

approximately place in its proper position in the zoological 
series. We tlius learn that man is descended from a hairy 
quadruped, furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably 
arboreal in its habits, and an inhabitant of the Old World. 
This creature, if its whole structure had been examined by 
a naturalist, would have been classed among quadrumana, 
as surely as would the common and still more ancient pro- 
genitor of the Old and New World monkeys. 



THE END. 



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have read no more interesting and instructive book for some time. Its themes concern 
evefy one who renders obedience to laws, and who would have those laws the best 
possible. The tide of legal reform which set in fifty years ago has to sweep 5'et higher 
if the flaws in our jurisprudence are to be removed. The process of change cannot be 
better guided than by a well-informed public mind, and Prof. Amos has done great 
service in materially helping to promote this end." — Bziffalo Courier. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



opinions of the Press on the ^''International Scientific Series.'^ 

XI. 

Animal Mechanism, 

A Treatise on Terrestrial and Aerial Locomotion. 

By E. J. MAREY, 

Professor at the College of France, and Member of the Academy of Medicine. 

With 117 Illustrations, drawn and engraved under the direction of the author. 

I vol., i2mo. Cloth Price, $1.75 

" We hope that, in the short glance which we have taken of some of the most im- 
portant points discussed in the work before us, we have succeeded in interesting our 
readers sufficiently in its contents to make them curious to learn more of its subject- 
matter. We cordially recommend it to their attention. 

"The anchor of the present work, it is well known, stands at the head of those 
physiologists who have investigated the mechanism of animal dynamics — indeed, we 
may almost say that he has made the subject his own. By the originality of his con- 
ceptions, the ingenuity of his constructions, the skill of his analysis, and the persever- 
ance of his investigations, he has surpassed all others in the power of unveiling the 
complex and intricate movements of animated beings." — Popular Science Monthly. 



XII. 

History of the Conflict between 
Rehgion and Science. 

By JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER, M. D., LL. D., 

Author of " The Intellectual Development of Europe." 
1 vol., i2mo. Price, $1.75. 

"This httle ' History' would have been a valuable contribution to literature at any 
time, and is, in fact, an admirable text-book upon a subject that is at present engross- 
ing the attention of a large number of the most serious-minded people, and it is no 
small compliment to the sagacity of its distinguished author that he has so well gauged 
the requirements of the times, and so adequately met them by the preparation of this 
volume. It remains to be added that, while the writer has flinched from no responsi- 
bility in his statements, and has written with entire fidelity to the demands of truth 
and justice, there is not a word in his book that can give offense to candid and fair- 
minded readers." — N. V. Eveni7ig Post. 

" The key-note to this volume is foimd in the antagonism between the progressive 
tendencies of the human mind and the pretensions of ecclesiastical authority, as devel- 
oped in the history of modern science. No previous writer has treated the subject 
from this point of view, and the present monograph will be found to possess no less 
originality of conception than vigor of reasoning and wealth of erudition. . . . The 
method of Dr. Draper, in his treatment of the various questions that come up for dis- 
cussion, IS marked by singular impartiality as well as consummate ability. Through- 
out his work he maintains the position of an historian, not of an advocate. His lone is 
tranquil and serene, as becomes the search after truth, with no trace of the impassioned 
ardor of controversy. He endeavors so far to identify himself with the contending 
parties as to gain a clear comprehension of their motives, but, at the same time, he 
submits their actions to the tests of a cool and impartial examination." — N. Y. Trihi(7te. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



Recent Publications.— scientific. 

THE PRINCIPLES OP MENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. With their Ap- 
plications to the Training and Discipline of the Mind, and the Study of its 
Morbid Conditions. By W. B. Carpenter, F. R. S., etc. Illustrated. i2mo. 
737 pages. Price, $3.00. 
" The work is probably the ablest exposition of the subject which has been given to the world, and goea 
fir to establish a new system of Mental Ji'hilosophy, upon a much broader and more substantial basis tnan 
it has heretofore stood." — St. Louis Democrat- 

" Let us add that nothing we have said, or in any limited space could say, would give an adequate con- 
ception of the valuable and curious collection of facts bearing on morbid mental conditions, the learned 
physiological exposition, and the treasure-house of useful hints for mental training, which make this large 
Hud yet vei-y amusing, as well as instructive book, an encyclopaedia of well-cliissified and often very 
startling psychological experiences." — London Spectator, 

THE EXPANSE OE HEAVEN. A Series of Essays on the Wonders of 
the Firmament. By R. A. Proctor, B. A. 

" A very charming work ; cannot fail to lift the reader's mind up ' through Nature's work to Nature's 
God.' " — London Standard. 

" Prof. R. A. Proctor is one of the very few rhetorical scientists who have the art of making science 
popular withoiit making it or themselves contemptible. It will be hard to find anywhere else so much 
skill in effective expression, combined with so much genuine astronomical learning, as is to be seen in his 
new volume." — Christian Union. 

PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. By various Writers. Edited 
by James HiNTON. With 50 Illustrations, i vol., i2mo. Price, $2.25. 

" This book is one of rare value, and will prove useful to a large class in the community. Its chief 
recommendation is in its applying the laws of the science of physiology to cases of the deranged or diseased 
operations of the organs or processes of the human system. It is as tnoroughly practical as is a book of 
formulas of medicine, and the style in which the information is given is so entirely devoid of the mystification 
of technical or scientific terms tnat the most simple can easily comprehend it." — Boston Gazette. 

" Of all the works upon health of a popular character which we have met with for some time, and we 
are glad to think that this most important branch ol knowledge is becoming more enlarged every day, 
the work before us appears to be the simplest, the soundest, and the best."- — Chicago Inter-Ocean. 

THE GREAT ICE AGE, and its Relations to the Antiquity of 

Man. By James Geiicie, F. R. S. E. With Maps, Charts, and numerous Illus- 
trations. I vol., thick i2mo. Price, $2.50. 
" ' The Great Ice Age ' is a work of extraordinary interest and value. The subject is peculiarly 
attractive in the immensity of its scope, and exercises a fascination over the imagination so absorbing that 
It can scarcely find expression in words. It has all the charms of wonder-tales, and excites scientific and 
unscientific minds alike." — BoHon Gazette. 

" Every step in the process is traced with admirable perspicuity and fullness by Mr. Geikie." — Lon- 
don Saturdaii Review. 

_ " ' The Great Ice Age,* by James Geikie, is a book that unites the popular and abstruse elements of 
scientific research to a remarKable deMee. The author recounts a story that is more romantic than nine 
novels out of ten, and we have read tne book from first to last with unflagging interest." — Boston Commer- 
cial Bulletin. 

ADDRESS DELIVERED BEFORE THE BRITISH ASSOCIA- 
TION, assembled at Belfast. By Johm Tyndall, F. R. S., President. Re- 
vised, with additions, by the author, since the delivery. i2mo. 120 pages. 
Paper. Price, 50 cents. 
This edition of this now famous address is the only one authorized by the author, and contains addi- 
tions and corrections not in the newspaper reports. 

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. Designed to represent the Existing State 
of Physiological Science as applied to the Functions of the Human Body. By 
Austin Flint, Jr., M. D. Complete in Five Volumes, octavo, of about 500 
pages each, with 105 Illustrations. Cloth, $22.00; sheep, $27.00. Each vol- 
ume sold separately. Price, cloth, $4.50; sheep, $5.50. The fifth and last 
volume has just been issued. 
The above is by far the most complete work on human physiology in the English language. It treats 
of the functions of the human body from a practical point of view, and is enriched by many original ex- 
periments and observations by the" author. Considerable space is given to physiological anatomy, par- 
ticularly the structure of glandular organs, the digestive system, nervous system, blood-vessels, organs of 
special sense, and organs of {feneration. It not only considers the v.arious functions of the body, from an 
experimental stand-point, but is peculiarly rich in citations of the literature of physiology. It is therefore 
invaluable as a work of reference for those who wish to study the subject of physiology exhaustively. As 
a complete treatise on a subject of such interest, it should be in the libraries of literary and scientific men, 
as well as in the hands of practitioners and students of medicine. Illustrations are introduced wherever 
they are necessary for the elucidation of the text. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



RECENT PUBLICATIONS. 



THE NATIVE BACES OF THE PACIFIC STATES. 

By Herbert H. Bancroft. To be completed in 5 vols. Vol, I. now 
ready. Containing Wild Tribes : their Manners and Customs. 
I vol., 8vo. Cloth, $6 ; sheep, $7. 

"We can only say that if the remaining volumes are executed in the same spirit ot 
candid and careful investigation, the same untiring industry, and intelligent good sense, 
which mark the volume before us, Mr. Bancroft's 'Native Races of the Pacific States 
will form, as regards aboriginal America, an encyclopaedia of knowledge not only un 
equaled but unapproached. A literary enterprise more deserving of a generous sym- 
pathy and support has never been undertaken on this side of the Atlantic." — Francis 
ParkmaNj in the North A7nerican Revieiv. 

"The industry, sound judgment, and the excellent literary style displayed in this 
workj cannot be too highly praised. " — Boston Post. 

A BRIEF HISTORY OF CULTURE. 

By John S. Hittell. i vol., i2mo. Price, $1.50. 

" He writes in a popular style for popular use. He takes ground which has never 
been fully occupied before, although the general subject has been treated more or less 
distinctly by several writers. . . . Mr. Hittell's method is compact, embracing a wide 
field in a few words, often presenting a mere hint, when a fuller treatment is craved by 
the reader; but, although his book cannot be commended as a model of literary art, it 
may be consulted to great advantage by every lover of free thought and novel sugges- 
tions." — N . Y, Tribune. 

THE HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN RE- 
LIGION AND SCIENCE. 

By John W. Draper, M. D., author of "The Intellectual Develop- 
ment of Europe." I vol., i2mo. Cloth. Price, $1.75. 
" The conflict of which he treats has been a mighty tragedy of humanity that has 
dragged nations into its vortex and involved the fate of empires. The work, though 
small, is full of instruction regarding tlie rise of the great ideas of science and philos- 
ophy ; and he describes in an impressive manner and with dramatic effect the way re- 
ligious authority has employed the secular power to obstruct the progress of knowledge 
and crush out the spirit of investigation. While there is not in his book a word of dis- 
respect for things sacred, he writes with a directness of speech, and a vividness of char- 
acterization and an unflinching fidelity to the facts, which show him to be in thorough 
earnest with his work. The ' History of the Conflict between Religion and Science' 
is a fitting sequel to the ' History of the Intellectual Development of Europe,' and will 
add to its author's already high reputation as a philosophic historian." — N. Y. Tribune, 

THEOLOGY IN THE ENGLISH POETS. 

COWPER, COLERIDGE, WORDSWORTH, and BURNS. By 
Rev. Stopford Brooke, i vol., i2mo. Price, $2. 

"Apart from its literary merits, the book maybe said to possess an independent 
value, as tending to familiarize a certain section of the English public with more en- 
lightened views of theology." — London AthencBtan. 

BLOOMER'S COMMERCIAL CRYPTOGRAPH. 

A Telegraph Code and Double Index — Holocryptic Cipher. By J. G. 
Bloomer, i vol., 8vo. Price, $5. 

By the use of this work, business communications of whatever nature may be tele- 
graphed with secrecy and economy. 

P. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, New York. 



THE GREVILLE MEMOIRS. 

COMPLETE IN TWO VOLS. 



A JOURNAL OF THE REIGNS OF 

King Greorge lY. & King William lY. 

By the Late CHAS. C. F. GREVILLE, Esq., 
Clerk of the Council to those Sovereigns. 

Edited by Henry Reeve, Registrar of the Privy Council. 

12mo. PRICE, $4.00. 

This edition contains the complete text as published in the three volumes 
of the English edition. 



" The sensation created by these Memoirs, on their first appearance, was not out of 
proportion to their real interest. They relate to a period of our history second only in 
importance to the Revolution of i683; they portray manners which have now disap- 
peared from society, yet have disappeared so recently that middle-aged men can recol- 
lect them; and they concern the conduct of very eminent persons, of whom some are 
still living, while of others the memory is so fresh that they still seem almost to be con- 
temporaneous." — T/ie Academy. 

" Such Memoirs as these are the most interesting contributions to history that can 
be made, and the most valuable as well. The man deserves gratitude from his pos- 
terity who, being placed in the midst of events that have any importance, and of people 
who bear any considerable part in them, sits down day by day and makes a record of 
his observations." — Buffalo Courier. 

"The Greville Memoirs, already in a third edition in London, in little more than 
two months, have been republished by D. Appleton & Co., New York. The three 
loosely-printed English volumes are here given in two, without the slightest abridg- 
ment, and the price, which is nine dollars across the water, here is onlj^ four. It 
is not too much to say that this work, though not so ambitious in its style as Horace 
Walpole's well-known 'Correspondence,' is much more interesting. In a word, these 
Greville Memoirs supply valuable maieiials not alone for political, but also for social 
history during the time they cover. They are addiiionally atti'active from the large 
quantity of racy anecdotes which they contain." — PJiiladelphia Press. 

" These are a few among many illustrations of the pleasant, gossipy information con- 
veyed in these Memoirs, whose great charm is the free ar.d straightforward manner in 
which the writer chronicles his impressions of men and events." — Bosto7i Daily Globe. 

"As will be seen, these volumes are of remarkable interest, and fully justify the en- 
comiums that heralded their appearance in this country. Thej^ will attract a large cir- 
cle of readers here, who will find in their gossipy pages an almost inexhaustible fund of 
instruction and amusement." — Boston SaUirday Evening Gazette. 

"Since the publication of Horace Waloole's Letters, no book of greater historical 
interest has seen the light than the Greville IMemoirs. It throws a curious, and, we 
may almost say, a terrible light on the conduct and character of the public men in Eng- 
land under the reigns of George IV. and William IV. Its descriptions of those kings 
and their kinsfolk are never likely to be forgotten." — N. V. Tivtes. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



THE LIFE OF 

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS 

THE PRINCE CONSORT. 

By THEODORE MARTIN. 
With Portraits and Views. Volume the First. 111110. Cloth. Price, $2.00. 



"The book, indeed, is more comprehensive than Its title implies. Purporting to 
tell the life of the Prince Consort, it includes a scarcely less minute biography — w hich 
may be regarded as almost an autobiography — of the Queen herself; and, when it is 
complete, it will probably present a more minute history of the domestic life of a queen 
and her ' master ' (the term is Her Majesty's) than has ever before appeared." — From 
the A tkencBum. 

" Mr. Martin has accomplished his task with a success which could scarcely have 
been anticipated. His biography of Prince Albert would be valuable and instructive 
even if it were addressed to remote and indifferent readers who had no special interest 
in the English court or in the royal family. Prince Albert's actual celebrity is insepa- 
rably associated with the high position which he occupied, but his claim to permanent 
reputation depends on the moral and intellectual qualities which were singularly 
adapted to the circumstances of his career. In any rank of life he would probably 
have attained distinction ; but his prudence, his self-denial, and his aptitude for acquir- 
ing practical knowledge, could scarcely have found a more suitable field of exercise 
than in his peculiar situation as the acknowledged head of a constitutional monarchy." 
Front the Sattirday Review. 

"The author writes with dignity and grace, he values his subject, and treats him 
with a certain courtly reverence, yet never once sinks into the panegyrist, and while 
apparently most frank — so frank, that the reticent English people may feel the intimacy 
of his domestic narratives almost painful — he is never once betrayed into a momentary 
indiscretion. The almost idyllic beauty of the relation between the Prince Consort 
and the Queen comes out as fully as in all previous histories of that relation — and we 
have now had three — as does also a good deal of evidence as to the Queen's own 
character, hitherto always kept down, and, as it were, self effaced in publications 
written or sanctioned by herself." — From the Lo7idon Spectator. 

"Of the abilities which have been claimed for the Prince Consort, this work affords 
us small means of judging. But of his wisdom, strong sense of duty, and great dignity 
and purity of character, the volume furnishes ample evidence. In this way it will be 
of service to any one who reads it." — From the New York Evening Post. 

" There is a striking contrast between this volume and the Greville Memoirs, which 
relate to a period in English history immediately preceding Prince Albert's marriage 
with Queen Victoria. Radical changes were effected in court-life by Victoria's acces- 
sion to the throne. ... In the work before us, which is the unfolding of a model home- 
life, a life in fact unrivaled in the abodes of modern royalty, there is nothing but what 
the purest mind can read with real pleasure and profit. 

" Mr. Martin draws a most exquisite portraiture of the married life of the royal pair, 
which seems to have been as nearly perfect as any thing human can be. The volume 
closes shortly after the Revolution of 1848, at Paris, when Louis Philippe and his hap- 
less queen were fleeing to England in search of an asylum from the fearful forebodings 
which overhung their pathway. It was a trying time for England, but, says Mr. Mar- 
tin with true dramatic effect in the closing passages of his book : ' When the storm 
burst, it found him prepared. In rising to meet the difficulties of the hour, the prince 
found the best support in the cheerful courage of the queen,' who on the 4th of 
April of that same year wrote to King Leopold : *I never was calmer and quieter or 
less nervous. Great events make me calm; it is only trifles that irritate my nerves.' 
Thus ends the first volume of one of the most important biographies of the present 
time. The second volume will follow as soon as its preparation can be effected."— 
From the Hartford Evening Post. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



"A rich list of fruitful topics'' 

Boston Commonwealth. 



HEALTH AND EDUCATION, 

By the Rev. CHARLES KINGSLEY, F. L. S., F. G. S., 

CANON OF WESTMINSTER. 
l2mo. Cloth. ...... Price, $1.75. 

" It is most refreshing to meet an earnest soul, and such, preeminently, is Charles 
Kingsley, and he has shown himself such in every thing he has written, from ' Alton 
Locke ' and ' Village Sermons,' a quarter of a century since, to the present volume, which 
is no exception. Here are fifteen Essays and Lectures, excellent and interesting in 
different degrees, hut all exhibiting the author's peculiar characteristics of thouglit 
and style, and some of them blending most valuable instruction with entertainment, 
as few living writers can." — Hartford Post. 

"That the title of this book is not expressive of its actual contents, is made mani- 
fest by a mere glance at its pages; it is, in fact, a collection of Essays* and Lectures, 
written and delivered upon various occasions by its distinguished author; as such it 
cannot be otherwise than readable, and no intelligent mind needs to be assured that 
Charles Kingsley is fascinating, whether he treats of Gothic Architecture, Natural 
History, or the Education of Women. The lecture on Thrift, which was intended for 
the women of England, may be read with profit and pleasure by the women of 
everywhere." — St. Louis Democrat. 

" The book contains exactly what every one needs to know, and in a form which 
every one can understand." — Boston Jo^iriial. 

" This volume no doubt contains his best thoughts on all the most important topics 
of the day." — Detroit Post. 

"Nothing could be better or more entertaining for the family library." — Zion's 
Herald. 

" For the style alone, and for the vivid pictures fi-equently presented, this latest 
production of Mr. Kingsley commends itself to readers. The topics treated are 
mostly practical, but the manner is always the manner of a master in composition. 
Whether discussing the abstract science of health, the subject of ventilation, the 
education of the different classes that form English society, natural history, geology, 
heroic aspiration, superstitious fears, or personal communication with Nature, we 
find the same freshness of treatment, and the same eloquence and affluence of language 
that distinguish the productions in other fields of this gifted author." — Boston Gazette. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



THE GREAT ICE AGE, 

AND ITS RELATIONS TO THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN, 

By JAMES GEIKIE, F. R. S. E. 

^A/■ith. Maps, Charts, and. numerous Illustrations. 

I vol., thick l2mo. . . . Price, $2.50. 



OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 

" Intelligent general readers, as well as students of geology, will find more infor- 
mation and reasonable speculation concerning the great glacial epoch of our globe in 
this volume than can be gathered from a score of other sources. The author writes 
not only for the benefit of his 'fellow-hammerers,' but also for non- specialists, and 
any one gifted with curiosity in respect to the natural history of the earth will be de- 
lighted with the clear statements and ample illustrations of Mr. Geikie's ' Great Ice 
Age.' " — Episcopal Register. 

" ' The Great Ice Age ' is a work of extraordinary interest and value. The subject 
is peculiarly attractive in the immensity of its scope, and exercises a fascination over the 
imagination so absorbing that it can scarcely find expression in words. It has all the 
charms of wonder-tales, and excites scientific and unscientific minds alike." — Bosion 
Gazette. 

" Mr. Geikie has succeeded in writing one of the most charming volumes in the 
library of popularized science." — Utica Herald. 

" We cannot too heartily commend the style of this book, which is scientific and yet 
popular, and yet not so popular as to dispense with the necessity of the reader's putting 
his mind to work in order to follow out the author in his forcible yet lucid arguments. 
Nor can the attentive reader fail to leave the work with the same enthusiasm over the 
subject as is shown in every page by the talented author."~Portland Press. 

" Although Mr. Geikie's position in the scientific world is such as to indicate that 
he is a pretty safe teacher, some of his views are decidedly original, and he does not 
make a point of sticking to the beaten path." —Spring/leld Union. 

"Prof. Geikie's book is one that may well engage thoughtful students other than 
geologists, bearing as it does on the absorbing question of the unwritten history of our 
race. The closing chapter of his work, in which, reviewing his analytical method, he 
constructs the story of the checkered past of the last 200,000 years, can scarcely fail to 
give food for thought even to the indifferent."— ^?(^«/<? Courier. 

" Every step in the process Is traced with admirable perspicuity and fullness by 
Mr. Geikie." — London Saturday Review. 

" It offers to the student of geology by far the completest account of the period yet 
published, and is characterized throughout by refreshing vigor of diction and originality 
of thought." — Glasgow Herald. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

549 & 551 Broadway, N. Y. 



DESCRIPTIVE SOCIOLOGY. 



Mb. Herbert Spencer has been for several years engaged, with the aid of 
three educated gentlemen in his employ, in collecting and organizing the facta 
concerning all orders of human societies, which must constitute the data of a true 
Sociil Science. He tabulates these facts so as conveniently to admit of ex- 
tensive comparison, and gives the authorities separately. He divides the racea 
of mankind into three great groups : the savage races, the existing civilizations, 
and the extinct civilizations, and to each he devotes a series of works. The 
first installment, 

THE SOCIOLOGICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 

in seven continuous tables, folio, with seventy pages of verifying text, is now 
rejidy. This work will be a perfect Cyclopaedia of the facts of Social Science, 
independent of all theories, and will be invaluable to all interested in social 
problems. Price, five dollars. This great work is spoken of as follows : 

From the British Quarterly Review. 
"No words are needed to indicate the immense labor here bestowed, or the gieat 
Bociological benefit which such a mass of tabulated matter done under such competent 
direction will confer. The work will constitute an epoch in the science of comparative 
sociology." 

From the Saturday Review. 

" The plan of the ' Descriptive Sociology ' is new, and the task is one eminently fitted 
to be dealt with by Mr. Herbert Spencer's faculty of scientific organizing. His object ie 
to examine the natural laws which govern the development of societies, as he has ox- 
anaiced in formei parts of his system those which govern the development of individual 
life. Now, it is obvious that the development of societies can be studied only in their 
history, and that general conclusions which shall hold good beyond the limits of particu- 
lar societies cannot be saf jly drawn except from a very wide range of facts. Mr. Spen- 
cer has therefore conceived the plan of making a preliminary collection, or perhaps we 
should rather say abstract, of materials which when complete will be a classified epi- 
tome of unive. sal history." 

From the London Examiner. 

•'Of the treatment, in the mam, we cannot speak too highly; and we must accepi 
It as a wonderfully successful first attempt to furnish the student of social scisnre with 
data Ptai)ding toward his conclusions in a relation like that in which accoun*? r^' ths 
Btructiires and fimctions of difi'ereut types of animals stand to the conclusiop? o< Uic 
Wologist." 



A New Magazine for Students and Cultivated Readers. 



THE 



POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, 

CONDUCTED BY 
ProfesBOP E. L. YOUMANS. 

The growing importance of scientific knowledge to all classes of the 
community calls for more efficient means of diffusing it. The Popular 
Science Monthly has been started to promote this object, and supplies a 
want met by no other periodical in the United States. 

It contains instructive and attractive articles, and abstracts of articles, 
original, selected, and illustrated, from the leading scientific men of differ- 
ent countries, giving the latest interpretations of natural phenomena, ex- 
plaining the applications of science to the practical arts, and to the opera- 
tions of domestic life. 

It is designed to give especial prominence to those branches of science 
which help to a better understanding of the nature of man ; to present the 
claims of scientific education ; and the bearings of science upon questions 
of society and government. How the various subjects of current opinion 
are affected by the advance of scientific inquiry will also be considered. 

In its literary character, this periodical aims to be popular, without be- 
ing superficial, and appeals to the intelligent reading-classes of the commu- 
nity. It seeks to procure authentic statements from men who know their 
subjects, and who will address the non-scientific public for purposes of ex- 
position and explanation. 

It will have contributions from Herbert Spencer, Professor Huxley, 
Professor Tyndall, Mr. Darw^in, and other writers identified with specu- 
lative thought and scientific investigation. 

THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY is pitblished in a large 
octavo, handsomely printed on clear type. Terms, Five Dollars per an7iu7n^ 
or Fifty Cents per copy. 

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 

"Just the publication needed at the present day." — Montreal Gazette. 

" It is, beyond comparison, the best attempt at journalism of the kind ever made in this 
country." — Hojiie Jo7ir7ial. 

" The initial number is admirably constituted." — Evenmg Mail. 

" In our opinion, the right idea has been happily hit in the plan of this new monthly." 
— Buffalo Co2irier. . . • 

"A journal which promises to be of eminent value to the cause of popular education in 
this country." — N. Y. Tribune. 

IMPORTANT TO CLUBS. 

The Popular Science Monthly will be supplied at reduced rates with any periodi- 
cal published in this country. 

Any person remitting Twenty Dollars for four yearly subscriptions will receive an ex- 
tra copy gratis, or five yearly subscriptions for $20. 
The Popular Science Monthly and Appletons' Journal (weekly), per annum, $8.00 

|!^^ Paymeyit, in all cases, 7n7tst be in advance. 

Remittances should be made by postal money-order Dr check to the Publishers, 

D. APPLETON & CO., 549 Sa 551 Broadway, New York. 



>• 



